tourism conflict matrix

• [email protected]

Journal of Tourism Studies and Hospitality Research

Tourism and peace relationship between tourism, peace & violence and conflict.

Published on: 2022-02-24

Tourism and Peace has transpired to emerge an area of research since the 1980’s; which is slightly more than a quarter of a century since this area of research has obtained a greater degree of significance and recognition. This area of research is still in the early stages and is yet to be explored and recognized which requires persistent and continuous endeavors to becoming a more appropriate research field, when we consider tourism a continuing source of growth with immense economical, socio-cultural and environmental impacts. In terms of its amount of peacefulness, the world has progressed differently over the last decade, with majority of nations rejoicing regular improvement in the peace and prosperity process while the less peaceful nations are leaping into violence and conflict. The purpose of this research study is to analyze the link between tourism, violence and conflict and also the responses to tourism and peace process.

Introduction

Tourism acts as a cultural and social occurrence engaging people of all ethnic groups world over as both guests and hosts with tourists travelling in millions every year. The central acquaintance with tourism – travelling to various regions and encountering new cultures and its people - is a reframing characteristic feature that gives meaning to the scope of tourism and its role acting as a means for peace. People of the world never travelled extensively, nor have experienced such a vast variety of cultures. These kinds of associations and contacts stimulate interchanges and communication, removes cultural hindrances and obstacles and also helps in the promotion of ethics of liberality, clemency, mutual understanding and courtesy. In a world persistently grapples for symbolic harmony, the ethics embraced by tourism are very vital in establishing a world for future which is peaceful. In fact, peace is a key aspect of travel and tourism, and is also an important segment of cultural and social growth. It is in defiance of this focus that tourism has been addressed as the first “Global Peace Industry”.The world has progressed to an extent of fluctuations with regard to its degree of peacefulness, with majority of regions enjoying regular improvements in the peace process while less peaceful regions are quickly moving towards conflicts and violence. The global economy has seen a significant growth in the economic cost of violence and conflict constraint, approx. at $ 13.7 trillion in 2012 and $14.3 trillion in 2014, 13.4% of world’s GPD. The contribution of tourism to global GDP at the same time has seen a growing trend average of 2.3%since 2005, however foreign expenditure on tourism business calculated on traveler exports has seen a growth rate 0f 3.4% on average globally. Nevertheless like other approaches of development tourism can too be held responsible for the issues such as social disturbance, demolition or deprivation of culture and heritage, economic dependence and environmental deterioration. With regard to these problems, the UNWTO’s Charter incorporates social and environmental responsibilities: “Tourism development shall be based on criteria of sustainability, which means that it must be ecologically bearable in long term, as well as economically viable, and ethically and socially equitable for local communities”. Open and Sustainable Tourism can act as a driver for peace, considering the envisioning procedures functioning at the both individual and state level. Open tourism is considered as to mitigate and scope to which tourism grows within and between countries leading to the currency exchange, values, characteristics, mutual understanding and various cultures. The term open tourism can widen and enlarge mentality and feelings resulting in individual are becoming more informative, open minded and unbiased towards their fellow human beings. The UNWTO defines Sustainable Tourism as, “tourism that meets the needs of present tourists and host regions while protecting and enhancing opportunity for the future”. Tourism too can lead to better diplomatic relations between nations of the world and to ease out trade relations, promoting a better political environment.

Literature Review

Tourism is generally recognized as a phenomenon which can enhance social and political harmony and endeavors in post-conflict situations. If tourism is maneuvered with sustainable concepts and approaches, it can have positive influences while reinstating the constant functioning of a tourism destination. The signification of sustainable tourism (listed as one of the 21 key areas in sustainable development by the UN Division for Sustainable Development) is too incorporated with its capability to eradicate poverty and establish peace, highlighted in the UNWTO’s Sustainable Tourism Eliminating Poverty (ST-EP) Programme [1]. The prospective responsibility of tourism is promoting peace from socio-cultural, political, human rights, social justice, environmental (climate change), health, globalization and alternative tourism aspects has been discussed [1,2]. The interrelation between tourism and peace has also been inscribed by a number of institutions. Such dynamism depicts the correlation and causal relationship between tourism and peace, and favors the notion that tourism can be beneficial in mitigating violence and conflicts, and also prompting the restoration approaches at a destination. Putting an end to the apparent violence via peace accord or achieving victory by military does not indicate that the peace has been achieved [3-5]. Relatively the finishing of violence or so called post conflict circumstances allocates a whole new paradigm of opportunities which can be drenched or dissipated [6]. An exceptional role can be played by the global community in either promoting or sabotaging this tenuous peace building process. A number of international NGO’s, the UN and individual State Level NGO’s are becoming more involved while rebuilding peaceful communities across globe post conflict circumstances. In Iraq and Syria the uncertainty and present conundrum faced by the communities are in a line of fresh understanding of observations in this compound task of post conflict peace building process. The UN initiated peace keeping approaches for the very first time in Namibia and Cambodia, involving the military security and also included the cooperation of election process. The UN Commission in East Timor even widened involving the initiation of a working government and community via far reaching development, law and order, security and governance aims. A large number of re-establishment campaigns have been taken into consideration, along with significance on security establishments, democracy and good governance. Nevertheless, the concept of tourism and peace is not an innovation. From the very beginning tourism has always been characterized as an approach, contributing in the promotion of peace, communal harmony and understanding of different communities. In consideration with this, in 1925 at the “International Congress of Official Association of Tourist Propaganda” in the Hauge professor Wim Trueb emphasized on the necessity for “encouraging travel so that different people could understand and become better acquainted with each other, thus collaborating to the peace so earnestly desired among people who have just survived a prolonged and deadly war”. In the year 1929, the British Travel and Holiday’s Association declared “Travel for Peace” as the theme for its inaugural meeting [7]. Then in the year 1967, the UN declared the theme as “International Tourism Year” with an encouraging and promising slogan “Tourism: Passport to Peace”. This was followed by a Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE) in the year 1975, leading on to the OSCE (the leading regional organization for post-cold war issues). Its document, the ‘Helsinki Final Act’ stated that tourism to be a significant approach of attaining cooperation and better mutual understanding. A declaration by the UNWTO in Manila in the year 1980, placed emphasis on the fact that tourism could be a contributing factor in establishing an international economic order on new criteria and also could be a  crucial approach for peace. Following the inaugural CSCE, the international tourism community too began to acknowledge the perspectives of tourism being a means for peace. The Tourism Conference in Manila in 1980 stated that ‘world tourism can be a vital force for peace [8]. In 1986, the International Institute for Peace through Tourism was formed, and the first conference related to the field: Tourism a Vital Force for Peace was held in Vancouver in 1988 [9,10]. Besides these, various Conferences and Summits on Peace through Tourism followed globally: Montreal, 1994; Scotland, 1999; Jordan, 2000; Switzerland, 2003a and Thailand, 2005 and some regional and African Conferences were also held including: 1 st , 2 nd & 3 rd Australian Conferences; Turkey & Italy, 2001; Jamaica, 2003; South Africa, 2001; Tanzania, 2003; Zambia, 2005 & Uganda, 2007. Additionally UNWTO has adopted fundamentals of tourism for peace in their declaration on the significance of tourism: ‘tourism is a powerful force for improving international understanding and contributing to peace among all the nations of the world’ [11] While reference was made about tourism’s potentiality for endorsing peace earlier to 1988, it was in that year those realizing its capability contend that the peace tourism approach began at least from a dignified perspective [5][12-15]. Earliest to the 1 st global conference on Peace through tourism in  1988, the founder of the conference Louis D’ Amore published papers related to the subject Tourism: A Vital Force for Peace and Tourism: The World’s Peace Industry [2]. Both these research papers contend that tourism could be considered as a driver for world peace and has the capability of providing the platform in understanding the cultural distinctions between people, preserving environment and heritage and also alleviating poverty while developing tourism economically. The debate on peace through tourism has obtained significant impetus following the 1 st International Conference on Peace through Tourism in 1988 [9]. Representatives who support tourism as a driver for peace have contended that tourism has the ability to act as a platform reducing cultural differences between people of the world , protecting and conserving environment, conserving resources of heritage and alleviating poverty through the development of economic resources of tourism  [12][15,16]. The representatives also contend that tourism is a recipient of peace [13] and negatively impacts local communities at a particular destination [17]. Although the debate on tourism as a driver of peace is a continuing process, the empirical research on the subject has been negligible as compared to other areas of research on tourism [10][18-25].

Discussions

Since 2008 the worldwide tourism trend has seen advancements and improvements in its sustainability and openness, even though there are considerable territorial contradictions. In the year 2019, the top 10 countries in terms of tourism openness and sustainability were: Spain, France, Germany, Japan, the US, the UK, Australia, Italy, Canada and Switzerland. India (43 th to 34 th ) had the greatest improvements over 2017 among the top 25% of all countries ranked. Egypt (74 th to 65 th ) had the best improvements among the countries ranked between 36-70. Serbia (95 th to 83 th ) had the largest improvements for economies ranked between 75-105 and Bangladesh (125 th to 120 th ) has the most improved amongst the remaining 25% of tourism index scores.

Table 1: Top 10 countries on Tourism Index Score 2019.

The increasing extermination rates in Latin America and the increase in death rates from internal conflict and violence in Sub-Saharan Africa has leaded the world towards becoming a place where the peacefulness is less. With the considerations and opinions of UN that more than 50million people are presently refugees and displaced persons because of the decreased level of internal peace, placing the estimations at highest level since World War II. The process of peace is also unequally becoming disseminated. The increase in the level of external peacefulness has been witnessed in Europe, while the trend of disintegration is continually witnessed in Middle East leading to the increase of gaps between the most and least peaceful regions of the world. A positive relation is predicted between open and sustainable tourism and the same relationships are also predicted between positive and negative peace. The drop downs in tourism index are not correlated with a brief decline in peacefulness. Even though worldwide average tourism index scores improved and increased from 2008-19, there were distant deteriorations in some regions of the world which are going through prolonged conflict and violence. Sustainability in tourism is irrepressible to worsening terrorism circumstances in the long run, even when the tourists are targeted by terrorists.

Relationship Between Tourism, Violence And Conflict

Tourism can be play a supportive role in generating peace globally and domestically with the help of pressurizing  governments by putting an end to violence and conflict in a way to increase the tourist arrivals and attract more tourists. It is significantly important from the tourism perspectives considering that it is a great source for economy. The tourism boycott in Guatemala in 1979, lead by the International Food and Allied Workers restricted tourist inflow to Guatemala, which was mostly contingent on tourism as source of revenue generation, “pressurizing the military government to refrain from human rights violation”,  and also contributing to the depletion of continuous domestic violence. Other such example is the cross border tourism in Kashmir (crossing over the LOC), which can help in providing a reduction to the conflict between India and Pakistan over this disputed region. Cross border tourism in this disputed region can provide assistance for better mutual understanding, regard and admiration by playing a role of confidence building measure on both side of the border, which also can lead to minimizing the magnitude of the international dispute. In a way to provide a safer environment to the tourists travelling to a particular destination, tourism also can pave ways for de-escalation or demilitarization in a country. Determined attempts and approaches for landmines removal in Rwanda were put forward by growing gorilla tourism in the national parks, and tourism also acted as a means for demilitarization of Panama of the downfall of Manuel Noriega in 1989.

Figure 1: Bivariate correlation matrix of tourism and measures of violence and conflict. The Tourism Index is correlated with lower levels of violence and conflict.

(Figure 1) shows the relationship between tourism openness and sustainability and violence and conflict as measured by the Global Peace Index. The bivariate correlation matrix between the Tourism Index and the component measures of the Global Peace Index shows that overall the Tourism Index is correlated with lower levels of violence and conflict. There is a stronger correlation between the Tourism Index and internal peace than between the Tourism Index and external peace.

Relationship Between Tourism And Positive Peace

The relationship between tourism and the positive peace is not always unidirectional. Whereas tourism in any region may provide assistance in enhancing good relationships with neighbors by encouraging, advocating and promoting cross cultural understanding. To contain violence, conflict and minimizing negative peace, the process of positive peace through tourism plays an important and prominent role. Positive peace scores have improved i.e. 2.6% worldwide since 2009, while 8 of the 9 global regions have also shown improvements in positive peace from 2009-18 except North America. With such improvements in the positive peace scores these regions have shown strong potential and capability of becoming more peaceful. Moreover, some countries with low income have shown positive scores lower than their negative peace score which indicates that these countries are prone to increasing violence. Such countries are mostly in Sub-Saharan Africa regions.

Figure 2: The relationships between sustainable tourism, positive peace and negative peace. The relationship between tourism and positive peace is not always uni-directional.

Source: World Tourism and Travel Council.

(Figure 2) summarises the relationships and association between open and sustainable tourism, the eight pillars of positive peace as defined by the Institute for Economics and Peace, and violence and conflict. Positive peace is affected by tourism via a number of procedures and processes. As the general public is more unveiled to unknown cultures and locals through travel and tourism, the integrity and rights of others should improve and strengthen with their patience and acceptance. To promote and assist the development of tourism sector, governments also may be required to protect, respect the integrity and rights of local communities while working together with them. With the initiation of a framework on the participation of local community in tourism development process, the government in Myanmar responded to the growing interest of locals by acknowledging their rights and the profits from tourism sector with their involvement. The working and functioning of governments can be enhanced when they acknowledge developing and stipulating a friendly and pleasant environment for additional tourism growth, with the help and support of improvements in tourism sustainability. To handle the etiquettes and manners of stakeholders, the government in Nepal responded to the rising inflow of tourists to Pokhara by implementing codes of conduct and protocols for Peace Responsive Tourism. In Kenya, the establishment of Election Period Tourism operating procedures in response to flow tourists during elections, puts forward a plan of action for all stakeholders to function together to foster and support peace during the period of intensified political pressures and uncertainty. Tourism has often been criticized for not providing its contributions to the working capital development, by engaging only local population in incompetent works those results in immobility while developing working capital. Promoters and representatives of tourism as a driver for driver for good and positive peace although argue that as tourism and the tourist sector grows, entire skills of host communities turn  into becoming significant  and imperative along with language and business skills. In Namibia, the tourism development has indicated that local populations are developing skills which are mainly focused on the working capital expansion involving language and trade skills. In South Africa, Township Tourism development has focused both on formal and informal skills possession by the members of community in Alexandra Township of Johannesburg. The increase in tourism inflow to a particular destination may lead to information flow, not only in that particular region or nation but across the world as the general public exchange their experiences and ideas. Political Tourism in Northern Ireland has seen a growing trend through people of the region travelling to learn and acquire knowledge about the conflict and its history, which has led to the information exchange and understanding of the local communities and cultures. Tourism development at a particular destination also affects relationship changes with the neighbours of that region. Visiting to relatively neighbouring regions and countries at individual level may help in promoting mutual understanding, communal harmony and liberality among the travelers and local communities. Collectively favourable economic gains may be promoted at the state level, while visiting to neighbouring countries. For example: Eco-tourists of Israel travelling to Jordan had reformed their perspectives and attitudes of Jordanian cultures and its historical institutions positively, when a comparison is drawn with a control group which did not travel. Correspondingly, travel to Mt. Gumnang by South Koreans positively affects their perceptions and attitudes toward North Korea, not only at the individual level but also at the national level.

Figure 3: Bivariate correlation matrix between Tourism Index and Positive Peace. All pillars of positive peace have strong correlations with the Tourism Index.

(Figure 3) Above shows the bivariate correlation matrix between the Tourism Index and measures of Positive Peace. There is a strong correlation between the Positive Peace Index and the Tourism Index, reflecting a positive relationship between levels of positive peace and tourism sustainability. Of all the positive peace pillars, high levels of human capital and a sound business environment have the strongest correlations with the Tourism Index.

Relationship Between Tourism And Terrorism

Tourists are falling frequently prey to the deliberate targets of terrorists, such as the attack on Russian Airline in 2015 in Egypt,  or the shooting at a beach in Tunisia in the same year. Tourists are also affected indirectly by the terrorists attacks, such as the 9/11 attacks in New York. Terrorist activities have lead to the rigorous impacts on tourism industry, such as restrictions on travel leading to the decrease in tourist flows, but even if these terrorist activities are having consequences on tourism industry has greater repercussions and is even now an area of debate. Research studies on this topic have contended that it is the recurrence of terrorist attacks which is detrimental for tourism industry, rather than the intensity and seriousness of these attacks. Some research studies have also suggested that instability in political systems is having more harmful impacts on the tourism industry of a region than one-off terror attacks. Becoming aware of perceived terror threats in one nation of the world, can also make tourists believe every region of the nation to be unsafe. The relationship between performance on the Terrorism Index and performance on the  Tourists are falling frequently prey to the deliberate targets of terrorists, such as the attack on Russian Airline in 2015 in Egypt,  or the shooting at a beach in Tunisia in the same year. Tourists are also affected indirectly by the terrorists attacks, such as the 9/11 attacks in New York. Terrorist activities have lead to the rigorous impacts on tourism industry, such as restrictions on travel leading to the decrease in tourist flows, but even if these terrorist activities are having consequences on tourism industry has greater repercussions and is even now an area of debate. Research studies on this topic have contended that it is the recurrence of terrorist attacks which is detrimental for tourism industry, rather than the intensity and seriousness of these attacks. Some research studies have also suggested that instability in political systems is having more harmful impacts on the tourism industry of a region than one-off terror attacks. Becoming aware of perceived terror threats in one nation of the world, can also make tourists believe every region of the nation to be unsafe. The relationship between performance on the Terrorism Index and performance on the Tourism Index is not an obvious one, as seen in Figure 4 below which shows the distribution of scores by region. Countries who score poorly on the Tourism Index exhibit a wider range of terrorism scores than those countries who perform well on the Tourism Index.   

Figure 4: Tourism and terrorism by region for countries who score poorly on the Tourism Index, there is a wider range of terrorism scores than for those countries who perform well on the Tourism Index.

There is considerable variance in the relationship between tourism and terrorism by region: South Asia, sub-Saharan Africa, MENA, South America and the Asia-Pacific have a correlation between higher levels of the Tourism Index and lower levels of terrorism, while Europe, Russia and Eurasia, North America, and Central America and the Caribbean show the opposite relationship. The first group of countries, particularly those in South Asia and MENA, are the ones that suffer frequent terrorist attacks. That this group also sees an inverse relationship between tourism and terrorism lends some support to the idea that frequency of terrorist attacks may be detrimental to tourism sustainability and openness.

Tourism is generally seen as a cultural and social occurrence engaging people of all ethnic groups world over, with tourists travelling in millions every year. The central acquaintance with tourism – travelling to various regions and encountering new cultures and its people - is a reframing characteristic feature that gives meaning to the scope of tourism and its role acting as a means for peace. The world has progressed to an extent of fluctuations with regard to its degree of peacefulness, with majority of regions enjoying regular improvements in the peace process while less peaceful regions are quickly moving towards conflicts and violence. Tourism can play a supportive role in generating peace globally and domestically with the help of pressurizing governments by putting an end to violence and conflict in a way to increase the tourist arrivals and attract more tourists. To contain violence, conflict and minimizing negative peace, the process of positive peace through tourism plays an important and prominent role. It is significantly important from the tourism perspectives considering that it is a great source for economy.

• Sharma SR, Upreti BR, Upadhayaya PK. Community-based and peace-sensitive tourism: fulfilling Nepal’s potential. Evidence for Policy Series Regional edition South Asia. 2010.
• Amore DLJ. Tourism a vital force for peace. Tourism Management. 1988; 9: 151-154.
• Licklider R. The consequences of negotiated settlements in civil war. American Political science review. 1995; 89: 681-690.
• Alluri RM. The role of tourism in post-conflict peace building in Rwanda. 2009.
• Farmaki A. The tourism and peace nexus. Tourism Management. 2017; 59: 528-540.
• Rothstein RL. After the peace: Resistance and reconciliation. Lynne Rienner Publishers. 1999.
• Honey M. Tourism: preventing conflict, promoting peace. Paper commissioned for USIP. 2008.
• World Tourism Organization UNWTO Economic Review of World Tourism. 1980.
• Intosh MRW, Goeldner CR, Ritchie JB. Tourism: principles, practices, philosophies. John Wiley and Sons. 1995.
• Var T, Ap J, Doren VC. Tourism and world peace. Global tourism. 1998; 2: 45-47.
• World Tourism Organization UNWTO. Tourism Highlights Edition, UNWTO, Madrid. 2006.
• Khamouna M, Zeiger ZB. Peace through tourism. Parks & Recreation (Arlington). 1995; 30: 80-86.
• Litvin SW. Tourism: The world's peace industry. Journal of Travel Research. 1998; 37: 63-66.
• Tomljenovic R, Faulkner B. Tourism and older residents in a sun belt resort. Annals of Tourism Research. 2000; 27: 93-114.
• Kelly I. Peace through tourism: a SWOT analysis. IIPT Occasional Paper. 2006; 2: 1-17.
• Askjellerud S. Conflict transformation through tourism (Doctoral dissertation, University of Brighton). 2003.
• Archer B, Cooper C, Ruhanen L. The positive and negative impacts of tourism. Global tourism. 2005; 3: 79-102.
• Amore DL. Peace through tourism: The birthing of a new socio-economic order. Journal of Business Ethics. 2009; 89: 559-568.
• Askjellerud S. Tourism and peace: The traveller. IIPT Occasional Paper. 2006.
• Tourism as a Driver for Peace. London UK. 2016.
• Tourism as a Driver of Peace. 2016.
• Chari PR, Chandran SD, Akhtar S. Tourism and Peace building in Jammu and Kashmir. United States Institute for Peace Special Report. 2011.
• Jafari J. Tourism and Peace, Annals of Tourism Research. 1989; 16: 439-443.
• Pratt S, Liu A. Does tourism really lead to peace. A Global View. International Journal of Tourism Research. 2015; 18: 82-90 .
• Hausler N, Baumgartner C. Myanmar on its way to Responsible Tourism Management: The Important Role of Stakeholder Dialogue in Wohlmuther and Wintersteiner Eds. International Handbook on Tourism and Peace. 2014; 181-198.

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings

Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

• Advanced Search
• Journal List
• Elsevier - PMC COVID-19 Collection

Towards a post-conflict tourism recovery framework ☆

Maharaj vijay reddy.

a Centre for Financial and Corporate Integrity, Faculty of Business and Law, Coventry University, CV1 5DL, United Kingdom

Stephen W. Boyd

b Department of Hospitality and Tourism Management, Ulster University Business School, Ulster University, Coleraine BT52 1SA, United Kingdom

Mirela Nica

Associated data.

While there is an increasingly extant literature on tourism crises and disasters, a lacunae exists regarding robust conceptual and theoretical frameworks for reviving tourism in a post-conflict context. Holistic frameworks that build tourism resilience in post-conflict destinations is still considered an emerging area in crisis management research. This paper aims to address this gap. An in-depth critique of research across leading peer-reviewed tourism journals, involving 102 individual papers; 63 on crises and disasters, and 39 on tourism recovery frameworks, was undertaken to develop a post-conflict tourism recovery framework. The framework proposed synthesizes complex relationships for post-conflict destinations operating “on the edge of chaos”, and enables consideration of key factors that influence their capacity to be resilient, adapt, and recover.

• • State-of-the-art review on crises management for tourism
• • Role of chaos, complexity, resilience and vulnerability to understanding crises
• • Development of a conceptual framework for post-conflict tourism development

Introduction

Tourism is widely recognised as contributing towards Sustainable Development Goals ( Reddy & Wilkes, 2015 ). By year-end 2018, international tourism receipts annually accounted for USD 1.5 trillion ( World Tourism Organisation, 2020 ) and the growing importance of tourism has been globally acknowledged from an economic, socio-cultural and pro-environmental perspective. Tourism has become a major agent for pro-active change for destinations where impacts are internalised and managed.

However, tourism remains highly vulnerable to crises and disasters (e.g., 9/11 terror attacks, 2004 Asian tsunami, Fukushima nuclear disaster, and Coronavirus pandemic) and this has evoked considerable research that has focused on impacts, changing perception of travel, and destination image ( Armstrong & Ritchie, 2008 ; Butler & Suntikul, 2013 ; Faulkner & Vikulov, 2001 ; Granville, Mehta, & Pike, 2016 ; Henderson, 2005 ; Isaac & Ashworth, 2012 ; Lanouar & Goaied, 2019 ; Miller & Ritchie, 2003 ; Prideaux & Witt, 2000 ; Reddy, Shaw, & Williams, 2006 ; Ritchie, 2004 , Ritchie, 2009 ; Seraphin, 2018 ; Woosnam & Kim, 2014 ; Yang, Zhang, & Chen, 2020 ).

Specifically, scholars have focused their attention on the key aspects related to tourism industry's readiness and responses to crises and disasters. These include: crisis knowledge and risk intelligence ( Paraskevas, Altinay, McLean, & Cooper, 2013 ; Paraskevas & Quek, 2019 ); forecasting ( Page, Yeoman, Munro, Connell, & Walker, 2006 ; Prideaux, Laws, & Faulkner, 2003 ); destination image ( Avraham, 2015 ; Ketter, 2016; Zenker, von Wallpach, Braun, & Vallaster, 2019 ); perceptions of risk and risk management ( Liu-Lastres, Schroeder & Pennington-Gray, 2019 ; Tsai & Chen, 2010 ); crisis indicators ( De Sausmarez, 2007 ); post-crisis recovery strategies ( Campiranon & Scott, 2014 ; Scott, Laws & Prideaux, 2007 ); crisis signal detection ( Paraskevas & Altinay, 2013 ); stakeholder collaboration ( Hystad & Keller, 2008 ; Jiang & Ritchie, 2017 ); crisis communication strategies ( Henderson, 2003 ; Liu-Lastres et al., 2019 ; Wang & Ritchie, 2012 ); terrorism prevention ( Kılıçlar, Uşaklı, & Tayfun, 2018 ; Paraskevas & Arendell, 2007 ). However, it has been argued that more research is needed on crises (see Ritchie & Jiang, 2019 ), in particular those caused by conflicts and political instability ( Henderson, 2007 ; Seraphin, Korstanje, & Gowreesunkar, 2019 ; Sonmez & Graefe, 1998 ).

The impacts of violence, terrorism, political instability and armed conflicts remain a key challenge for tourism researchers as the vulnerability and resilience of destinations vary as a result of their spatial and functional connections with the physical, cultural, socio-economic, political and technological environments ( Leiper, 2008 ; Scott & Laws, 2005 ). Consequently, the focus of this review article is, firstly attributed to debating the relationship between conflicts and tourism, their theoretical underpinning and the issues of vulnerability and resilience; secondly, it focusses on conflict destinations and their implications for the development of frameworks for crises management while proposing a holistic framework for post-conflict destinations.

For the scope of this article, two methodological procedures were followed. First, a comprehensive review of tourism studies that considered the impacts of natural and human-induced disasters on tourism over the past 20 years (1999–2019) was conducted to understand their impact on destinations and the attempt made to understand the theoretical underpinning and issues of vulnerability and resilience. The review reflects a growing interest across the academic community in this research area given the major implications that crises have on the tourism industry. The authors acknowledge that extant research may have been undertaken on specific disasters and crisis published in journals worldwide and online, but the focus in this review was on 63 tourism studies specifically analysing natural and human-induced disasters that occurred in both developed as well as less-developed countries, and were published in peer-reviewed journals (see Fig. 1 and Appendix 1).

Illustration of natural and human-induced disasters studies in tourism research.

Second, a structured review of tourism crisis and disaster management models and frameworks applied in tourism research was carried out. Disasters were included given that not all disasters are naturally occurring. This review was purposely limited to the top three academic tourism journals (based on UK's Chartered Association of Business Schools Journal Ranking 2018) namely Annals of Tourism Research, Tourism Management, and Journal of Travel Research. Between 1999 and 2019, some 39 articles (18 in Tourism Management, 9 in Annals of Tourism Research, 12 in Journal of Travel Research) discussed crises management. This was reduced to 14 based on the eligibility of: (1) a specific keywords search for “Crisis”, “Management” AND “Framework” in the journal article's title, abstract and keywords; (2) a 1999–2019 time frame; and (3) relevance of the paper to the analysis of tourism crisis management frameworks and models. In order to reflect the wide range of research in the field of crisis management and frameworks applied in tourism, a further six articles were identified from other sources following a “snowball” approach. The identification and selection of these six peer-reviewed articles was realised through a process of screening based on frequency of citations (e.g., McKercher, 2008 ; Mckercher & Tung, 2015 ) and relevance to the analysis. These included work by Evans and Elphick (2005) , De Sausmarez (2007) , Scott et al. (2007) , Sonmez and Graefe (1998) , Pennington-Gray, Schroeder, and Gale (2014) and Jiang and Ritchie (2017) (see Appendix 2).

Assessment of both data sets helped to inform the development of an integrated conceptual framework that is presented in the final part of this paper, which recognises three keys tenets of ‘adaptiveness’, ‘vulnerability’ and ‘resilience’.

Understanding tourism crises

Theoretical and empirical aspects.

It is well accepted that there exists a difference between crises and disasters ( Faulkner, 2001 ; Santana, 2004 ; Scott & Laws, 2005 ). The former is more often internal and manageable whereas the latter external and less predictable. Both, however, involve the management of risk and the impact that can bring to bear on society. This brings new challenges to the management of crises.

The question is thus not whether a crisis will happen but when and how the crisis will be handled ( Faulkner & Vikulov, 2001 ; Kash & Darling, 1998 ). Crises threaten the existence of any system, “whether it is a nation state, social community, government, organisation, natural environment, eco-system or some other established system (including tourism)” ( Ritchie, 2009, p.8 ). To a certain extent, there is a degree of ‘predictability’ with a crises. In contrast, Prideaux, Laws and Faulkner (2003, p.478) argue that a disaster is an “unpredictable catastrophic change that can normally only be responded to after the event, either by deploying contingency plans already in place or through reactive response”. As a result, in recent years, the response to a disaster or crisis has become increasingly proactive, predominantly focusing on risk reduction mechanisms that aim to reduce people's vulnerability to natural disasters or conflicts ( Hilhorst, 2013 ).

However, as Faulkner (2001, p.136) highlighted, “one of the reasons so little progress has been made in the advancing of our understanding of tourism crises is the limited development of the theoretical and conceptual frameworks required to underpin the analysis of this phenomena”. An analysis of current crisis management approaches in tourism demonstrates the need for a different perspective in managing tourism crises due to the likely complex and chaotic nature of these events. What is more, tourism seems to behave in a non-linear, non-deterministic and dynamic manner ( Baggio, 2008 ; McKercher, 1999 ), with a complex set of relationships existing between and within the tourism destinations. Hence, a complexity-based perspective on tourism crises as an alternative to a more conventional approach to tourism destination management may provide a better understanding of tourism crises management and planning.

Chaos and complexity

Chaos and complexity theory ( McKercher, 1999 ), refers to “a broad set of loosely related theoretical and meta-theoretical orientations to the behaviour of complex non-linear systems” ( Seeger, 2002, p.329 ), and is concerned with “how systems change and evolve over time due to interaction of their constituent parts” ( Manson, 2001, p.406 ). Although chaos and complexity theory have been used interchangeably in the literature ( Farsari, Butler, & Szivas, 2011 ; McDonald, 2009 ), Manson (2001, p.406) argues that complexity theory research contends several perspectives and approaches to complexity with “sometimes conflicting assumptions and conclusions”. The authors argue that those most relevant to the discussion presented in this paper include, ‘deterministic complexity’ (related to chaos and catastrophe theory) and ‘aggregate complexity’ (related to complex system theory and emphasizing holism and synergy resulting from the interaction of the system components). The former relates to chaotic systems that are characterised by features such as the butterfly effect, bifurcation, and feedback ( Manson, 2001 ). The latter concerns complex systems which are determined by the relationships rather than by its constituted components ( Farsari et al., 2011 ; Manson, 2001 ).

Chaos and complexity theory in tourism research

Traditionally, tourism research has been based on the 19th century Newtonian paradigm or deterministic model which focuses on aspects “that display a tendency toward linear relationships, equilibrium, and structural simplicity” ( Faulkner & Goeldner, 1998, p.78 ). This approach follows a reductionist position that perceives small changes in the initial conditions of a system as constantly being echoed in small changes in the final state of that system.

Many tourism academics, however, have argued that it is inappropriate to consider tourism as a stable and balanced system since tourism is in fact subject to constant fluctuation and uncertainty ( Baggio, 2008 ; Faulkner & Goeldner, 1998 ). McKercher (1999, p. 426) expressed criticism of conventional research and its consideration of systems as “expectable, stable, orderly, and conducive to linear change” and instead viewed them as “complex and uncontrollable, characterized by nonlinear, non-deterministic chaotic behavior”.

Accordingly, advocates of complexity and chaos theory suggest that more attention should be given in tourism research: to explore nonlinear and less linear (or quasi-linear) relationships; to unusual events that may initiate change rather than regular cases and situations; and to “turbulence” ( Faulkner, 2000 ) rather than stability ( Baggio, 2008 ; Farrell & Twining-Ward, 2004 ; Farsari et al., 2011 ; McDonald, 2009 ; Speakman, 2017 ). A destination is hence recognised as an unstable, dynamic system which is subject to non-linear relationships ( Scott & Laws, 2005 ). Any triggering internal and external events, either natural or human-induced, can challenge the existent structure of the tourism destination and redirect it into new dynamic paths. The characteristics of the dynamic systems thus make it impossible to accurately forecast any long-term future evolution, especially when the system is on the “edge of chaos” or moves from one phase to another ( Baggio & Sainaghi, 2011 ). Additionally, non-linear dynamic systems are capable of demonstrating self-organisation and chaos ( Baggio, 2008 ). This capacity occurs even though these systems are deterministic, which means that their future behaviour is entirely determined by their initial conditions without any random terms or elements involved. This behaviour is called deterministic chaos (or simply chaos) referring to this as “the irregular (chaotic) motion generated by a system whose evolution is governed by dynamic laws that uniquely determine the state of the system at all times from a knowledge of the system's previous history” ( Baggio, 2008, p.7 ).

In tourism research, complexity theory has been used to address non-linear relationships and complexities that are inherent in tourism destinations ( Baggio, 2008 ; Farrell & Twining-Ward, 2004 ; McDonald, 2009 ; Speakman, 2017 ). Thus, “complexity” as a concept has been explored in relation to sustainable tourism policies ( Farsari et al., 2011 ), and to crisis and disaster management ( Boukas & Ziakas, 2014 ; Faulkner & Russell, 1997 ; Paraskevas, 2006 ; Ritchie, 2004 ; Speakman & Sharpley, 2012 ). However, there is scope for new insights to be gained from adopting a complexity-based approach to the study of tourism destination development and management in contextual situations involving crises and disasters.

Tourism as a complex and chaotic system

As a complex system, tourism includes sub-systems of people (communities), institutions and organisations and physical elements (attractions, infrastructure, ecosystems) which are interconnected and influence each other ( Scuttari, Volgger, & Pechlaner, 2016 ). From a complexity perspective, a tourism system can be dislocated from its steady state condition by a triggering event and this situation is referred to as chaos, “which is as random and unpredictable as the outcome” ( Russell & Faulkner, 2004 , p.557). Several features of a chaotic system seem to be relevant to our discussion here, namely the ‘edge-of-chaos’, ‘bifurcation’, ‘self-organising’, ‘butterfly effect’ and ‘lock-in effect’ ( Boukas & Ziakas, 2014 ; Faulkner, 2000 ; McKercher, 1999 ; Russell & Faulkner, 2004 ).

“ Edge-of-chaos ” implies an extreme readiness for radical change as the system has reached a point of tenuous equilibrium ( Russell & Faulkner, 2004 ), creating a sense of uncertainty which leads to a ‘bifurcation’ stage of chaos and disequilibrium within the system. “ Self-organising ” involves self-referencing, increased capacity, and interdependent organising ( Lichtenstein, 2000 ) where the system becomes more “suitable” to deal with internal or external difficulties as it benefits from more optimised available resources ( Baggio & Sainaghi, 2011 ). If successful, the crisis enters a resolution stage, returning to a state of ‘business as usual’ ( Paraskevas, 2006 ). However, new and coherent structures and patterns may emerge ( Speakman, 2017 ), and thus a return to normality is not necessarily feasible or desired. “ Butterfly effect ” refers to situations when minor changes can lead to a chain of reaction that culminates in larger outcomes ( Faulkner, 2000 ; Russell & Faulkner, 2004 ; McKercher, 1999 ). An example of this being Eyjafjallajökull eruption in Iceland in 2010 and the impact it had on global aviation industry. According to McKercher (1999) , in a tourism context, the butterfly effect explains how similar destinations can evolve in different ways, reflecting the unpredictable nature of tourism development where small changes in the initial conditions can lead to completely different outcomes. Lastly, ‘ lock-in-effect ’ relates to the persistence of certain inherited innovations regardless of the changes in the system. For example, why certain heritages in the past have survived despite changes in the original conditions that made them necessary ( Faulkner & Russell, 1997 ; McKercher, 1999 ). Chaos theory has utility for better understanding the turbulent and challenging relationships that can form during a crisis and disaster (see Boukas & Ziakas, 2014 ; Speakman & Sharpley, 2012 ).

There is the need for a multi-disciplinary and holistic approach to crisis management research in tourism ( Ritchie, 2004 ). Santana (2004) and Scott and Laws (2005) emphasised the conceptualisation of crisis and disaster in terms of a systems perspective considering that tourism networks are interconnected. In this context, the influence of unintended events or crises on tourism systems can create tensions that lead to systemic restructuring ( Boukas & Ziakas, 2014 ; Faulkner, 2000 ). Although the plausibility of a chaos-complexity approach is still under debate ( Speakman, 2017 ), tourism destinations functioning “on the edge of chaos” could deal with and be better prepared to reduce the impacts caused by crises through “self-organisation”, “learning” (innovation) and “transformation to a more desirable trajectory” ( Davoudi, Brooks, & Mehmood, 2013, p.307 ), as a means to improve destination resilience. A ‘desirable trajectory’ is perhaps being over-optimistic here and perhaps one should be approaching resilience from a standpoint of ensuring some future ‘realistic trajectory’. For destinations that have faced long-protracted conflict such as Northern Ireland and Sri Lanka; compared to a short-term period of turbulence such as Egypt during the Arab Spring, that realism is often driven by what is best to save and where the focus must be, namely maintaining a lower level of accommodation stock and protecting heritage assets ( Boyd, 2019a ). In light of this view, there is much merit in examining the role that resilience theory and thinking offers to facilitate any ‘realistic trajectory’, especially as they offer scope to reduce vulnerability in any given system, in this case, the tourism destination region.

Resilience and vulnerability

Resilience is a concept that is useful in exploring crises, as it provides a way to improve the ability of a system (i.e., tourism destination) to adapt to stress, cope with change and the effects of crises while retaining integrity and ability to continue to function ( Berbés-Blázquez & Scott, 2017 ; Butler, 2017 ). It takes on different forms, including engineering, ecological and evolutionary resilience ( Davoudi et al., 2013 ; Folke et al., 2010 ; Hall, Prayag, & Amore, 2018 ).

Engineering resilience dominated much of early developments in ecology and reflected a rather narrow notion of the stability properties of systems by measuring the speed at which a system returns to its previous equilibrium or steady state after a disturbance. The more resilient the system is, the faster it bounces back ( Davoudi, 2012 ). Engineering resilience focuses on the “attributes of efficiency, constancy and predictability” of complicated systems ( Hall et al., 2018 , p.41). Ecological resilience focuses on the “core attributes of persistence, change and unpredictability” of complex systems and considers the magnitude of the disturbance that can be absorbed by a system before it changes its structure ( Hall et al., 2018 ). This is, how much disturbance a system can take in order to remain within its critical thresholds. Evolutionary resilience challenges the entire idea of equilibrium by suggesting that the system can change over time with or without an external disturbance ( Davoudi et al., 2013 ; Folke et al., 2010 ). It is based on Holling's (2001) adaptive cycle comprising four distinct phases (see Fig. 2 ).

The adaptive cycle.

After a full cycle, a new growth phase starts where the different configurations and possibilities compete to form something new or a version of the previous cycle ( Berbés-Blázquez & Scott, 2017 ; Hall et al., 2018 ).

Applying ‘adaptive cycle’ thinking to crises has great utility, namely, the ability to react to external stimuli and modify behaviour accordingly. Shocks, disturbance and changes are seen as important factors in unlocking opportunities for the reorganisation of any system ( Biggs, Schluter, & Schoon, 2015 ), where governance and management can enhance resilience and allow adaptive responses to unexpected events. Biggs, Schluter, et al. (2015) argue that systems with particularly high levels of diversity tend to be more resilient than those associated with low diversity, although this also implies an increasing complexity and inefficiency that may reduce the capacity to adapt to slower and ongoing change. Accordingly, the application of resilience and resilience thinking offers new opportunities for the management of crises. Destination managers can learn the lessons from those destinations that have faced long-term conflict (wars, terrorism and civil unrest) and apply their decision-making processes including developing crisis communication strategies (e.g., Liu-Lastres et al., 2019 ; Möller, Wang, & Nguyen, 2018 ) to rebuild destination image and recover markets.

The framework proposed in this paper illustrates that such action taken by management involves a holistic assessment of the industry and its ability to be adaptive to the crises and accept that some aspects will be lost or reduced and that resilience requires decision-making around key priorities such as protecting a basic level of service provision and attraction offer. Boyd (2016) on Northern Ireland noted that prior to conflict the region had a substantial mix of heritage attraction and that little was lost during the conflict era allowing for new development that was heritage-focused, in particular dark heritage attraction.

The authors make the argument that understanding vulnerability, and its relation to resilience is also important in crises management thinking ( Adger, 2000 ; Calgaro, Lloyd, & Dominey-Howes, 2014 ). Adger (2006) refers vulnerability as the predisposition of a system to disturbances, its exposure and sensitivity to perturbations and its capacity to adapt. In this respect, vulnerability is seen as “a loose antonym” ( Adger, 2000, p.348 ) to resilience. Moreover, Miller et al. (2010) argue that resilience and vulnerability, although linked, are two different approaches to understanding the response of systems and actors to change. The existing differences in approaches come from their origins in ecological theory (resilience) and social theory (vulnerability), respectively. The former being a systemic approach while the latter involves community prefering an actor-oriented approach ( Miller et al., 2010 ). Resilience studies focus on the interaction between slow and longer term changes and drivers of change (e.g., climate change) and rapid changes (political and economic crisis). On the contrary, vulnerability researchers focus on human agency and often short-term threats. More recently, researchers have looked to combine resilience and vulnerability in examining socio-ecological systems ( Hall et al., 2018 ).

Resilience and vulnerability in tourism research

Resilience has, of late, received greater attention within the tourism academic community ( Lew, 2014 ; Prayag, 2018 ). Two aspects of resilience thinking have emerged. The first refers to the use of the ‘adaptive cycle’ ( Berbés-Blázquez & Scott, 2017 ; Cheer & Lew, 2017 ) and its utility in explaining how tourism systems undergo different periods of growth, breakdown, and reorganisation. However, the application of resilience thinking and adaptive management have been somewhat limited to the ability of a destination to recover from natural disasters ( Biggs, Hall, & Stoeckl, 2012 ; Orchiston, Prayag, & Brown, 2016 ), or focused on economic and security-related shocks ( Biggs, 2011 ; Liu & Pratt, 2017 ) or achieving sustainability (see Table 1 ). Resilience thinking requires further consideration and application to destinations that have experienced crises such as conflicts.

A synopsis of resilience research in tourism.

The second aspect refers to the scale of change occurring: slow change (gradual variations and changes over time) and fast change (disasters). Adaptive capacities and the actions required for each type of change needs a tailored response. Consequently, resilience needs to deal with a specific set of issues depending on the type of changes and level of tourism involvement. This is evidenced in Lew's (2014) scale, change and resilience model for tourism and resilience planning. The model is centred on the idea that different groups (private entrepreneurs, local and regional governments) have a different focus in addressing resilience issues. Their perception and implicit management of slow change is different than under sudden major shocks to these systems. This results in the need for different modes of response and planning within affected tourism destinations.

Vulnerability in tourism research has focused on risk perception, safety and security. Liu and Pratt (2017) , examined the relationship between resilience, tourism and terrorism, and found that terrorism does not have an adverse impact on tourism demand in the long run. However, they found that a country's political regime, its dependence on tourism and level of national income do have an influence on tourism destination resilience to terrorism. Crouch and Ritchie (1999) outlined a series of determining factors that can affect a destination, usually beyond the control or influence of the tourism sector. These include the location, cost of a destination and dependencies between destinations, as location cannot be changed and cost is largely driven by socio-economic and global forces. The effects of war in one part of the world can affect and disturb tourism industries far from the origin of conflict. Adger (2000) found that the disruption to livelihoods and loss of security for local communities due to war or civil conflict accentuate social vulnerability.

Prayag (2018, p.135) advocates for a shift in tourism research from crisis management to resilience, considering that “if a system is resilient, it is implicit that it has the ability not only to overcome crises but to better adapt to change overall”. Berbés-Blázquez and Scott (2017, p.13) also argue that “resilience thinking” is needed to understand processes of change and stability in social-ecological systems. This involves adopting ‘complex adaptive systems lens’ and an understanding of tourism systems as combined social-ecological systems.

Certain destinations seem to be more resilient than others both in terms of their ability to adapt to change and their speed of recovery from a crisis. A system's vulnerability to crises and also the effectiveness of its recovery efforts may differ in ways, and for reasons which are yet to be fully understood ( Scott et al., 2007 ). However, a resilient system adapts to change by building adaptive capacity in the face of unanticipated and anticipated disruptions. This is a critical ability for a tourism system since conflicts, and respectively political instability, unlike natural disasters, impact the tourism industry and the image of a destination more significantly and for longer periods of time ( Pizam & Mansfeld, 2005 ). They affect the capacity of tourism destinations to adapt to changes and ‘bounce-back’ from crises. Hence, it is vital to better understand the relationship between resilience, tourism crisis and tourism recovery in conflict-ridden areas ( Issac, Cakmak, & Butler, 2019 ), concepts that have shaped the development of the conceptual framework are presented later in the paper.

Crisis management frameworks and models in tourism

Although crisis management has been a recognised practice and concept since the 1962 Cuban missile crisis, emerging from the field of conflict resolution and diplomacy (Frei, 1978 in De Sausmarez, 2004 ), in a tourism context, crisis management research is more recent and dates back to the 1980s ( De Sausmarez, 2004 ). Over the years, research has mainly focussed on producing prescriptive models describing the stages of a crisis in order to assist understanding in proactive and strategic crises management ( Ritchie, 2009 ). Moreover, Hall (2010) argued that tourism crisis management has concentrated on economic and financial crises, and crisis events such as 9/11 or unexpected oil shocks. This raises the question as “to the reactive nature of tourism research versus the development of greater predictive capacity and theory generation” ( Hall, 2010, p.406 ). While the focus pre 2010 was selective, researchers over the past decade have addressed environmental crises from the standpoint of environmental sustainability, environmental change and adaptation ( Kutzner, 2019 ) and building organizational and enterprise resilience ( Biggs, Hicks, Cinner, & Hall, 2015 ). Other scholars have examined particular environmental catastrophes such as oil spills from the Deepwater Horizon ( Pennington-Gray, London, Cahyanto, & Klages, 2011 ) and the challenges of conservation regarding the Great Barrier Reef ( Biggs, Ban, & Hall, 2012 ). The latter evidence of research suggests movement towards being more proactive and predictive.

The early thinking by Faulkner (2001) and Ritchie (2004) who developed more generic and strategic models for tourism crisis management were cognizant of the need for theory and framework generation that was both proactive and have predictive capacity. Referring to these models, De Sausmarez (2007) recognises their applicability to any destination in the event of a crisis. As a result the framework developed by Faulkner (2001) has been extensively employed, with and without amendment in many differing situations (e.g., Henderson, 2003 ; Miller & Ritchie, 2003 ; Peters & Pikkemaat, 2005 ; Novelli, Gussing Burgess, Jones, & Ritchie, 2018 ).

According to general theories, a crisis advances in stages. For instance, Fink (1986) considered that a crisis follows four stages that are categorised prodromal (warning), acute (at the height of the crisis), chronic (aftermath), and resolution. Faulkner's (2001) tourism disaster management framework is a composite set of stages based on earlier research of Fink (1986) and Roberts (1994) . The latter identified specific stages of responding to a flood. According to Faulkner (2001) , a crisis follows six stages. The process commences with a “pre-event phase”, when action can be taken to prevent or mitigate the consequences of a disaster, followed by a “prodromal” state in which the disaster is imminent. The “emergency phase” refers to the time when actions are taken to protect life and property, followed by an “intermediate phase”, a “long-term recovery phase” and a “resolution phase” in which routine is restored or a new improved state emerges. His tourism crises management model also includes a list of responses to each of these phases alongside management strategies, updated risk assessment and contingency plans.

Faulkner's (2001) model remains one of the most cited crises management frameworks. Since Faulkner's model, there has emerged a body of scholarly work on frameworks and models that have a broad research focus, addressing a multiplicity of concepts and aspects (see Fig. 3 ). Some of the models analysed consider crises as having a distinct start and finish with a desirable end of a crisis as a return to normality. This idea is supported by the use of crisis stages to divide time into a before (pre-crisis) and after (post-crisis). Scott and Laws (2005) and Scott et al. (2007) argue that an alternative systems perspective offers a better representation of a crisis. A crisis is thus seen as an evolving system where change (both positive and negative) is endemic and not limited to only its immediate temporal or geographic locality. In addition, these changes cannot be planned as part of a strategic management as they also may lead to different stages. As a result, the subsequent system may be different than the previous one and, consequently, a return to normality is not always the required endpoint ( Scott & Laws, 2005 ).

Tourism crisis management frameworks and models reviewed: empirical approaches.

Also, crises require a flexible and unplanned response since “routine solutions applied to an abnormal situation tend to aggravate rather than alleviate a problem” ( Santana, 2004 , p.306). They have what Faulkner (2001, p.137) termed as having “…transformational connotations, with each such event having potential positive (e.g., stimulus to innovation, recognition of new markets, etc.), as well as negative outcomes.” Alternative thinking has been to consider destinations as networks of stakeholders, where these can be reconfigured into more effective structures following a crisis ( Scott et al., 2007 ).

Many of the tourism crisis management models offer only a prescriptive viewpoint, providing check lists or information on what managers should do before, during or after crises ( Burnett, 1998 ; Ritchie, 2004 ). Their focus is on developing cautionary or preventive capacity as a measure for crisis coping or management ( Shrivastava, 1993 ). Nonetheless, it is important to recognise the fact that considerable advances have been made in order to help the industry overcome crises and disasters by providing pre-planning strategies to avoid or to mitigate future disasters ( Scott et al., 2007 ).

Managing tourism crises as a result of conflicts and political instability poses additional challenges for tourism managers and policy planners. The task here can vary from developing survival strategies during conflicts to finding creative ways for post-conflict recovery. What is more, political instability and the absence of peace challenge the development of tourism as a “conflict-free” environment is often seen as a prerequisite for attracting tourists ( Boyd, 2019b ; Pizam & Mansfeld, 2005 ). In order to develop models and a framework that focuses on tourism and its recovery for conflict-ridden destinations, a wider understanding of the relationship between tourism and conflict first needs to be explored.

Tourism and conflicts

The role of tourism in conflict-ridden destinations and the relationship between conflict (i.e. war, armed conflicts) and tourism have been investigated by the academic community with an increasing understanding that tourism plays a positive role in socio-economic development and in reconciliation among different communities and cultures ( Issac et al., 2019 ; Koleth, 2014 ; Pizam, Fleischer, & Mansfeld, 2002 ; Upadhayaya, Müller-Böker, Sharma, & Umar Upadhayaya, 2011 ). Thus, tourism acts as a “force for world peace”( D'Amore, 1988 ). Some researchers, however, have questioned the role of tourism in areas affected by conflict and as a result, two types of research studies have emerged. There are studies advocating tourism as an agent for creating and facilitating rapport between divided communities ( Causevic, 2010 ; Sonmez & Apostolopoulos, 2000 ) and as a confidence building measure encouraging cooperation ( Simone-Charteris & Boyd, 2010 ). Conversely, opponents to tourism as a contributor to peace argue that tourism is a beneficiary of peace, rather than grounds for peace ( Pratt & Liu, 2016 ). Tourism by itself does not implicitly contribute to tourists' positive attitudinal changes or prejudice attenuation. This only happens under certain conditions, such as a quality tourist experience ( Pizam et al., 2002 ), a situation that may not be always scalable from individuals to whole nations ( Pratt and Liu, 2016 ).

As for the relationship between conflict and tourism, it has been shown that while conflict usually prevents tourism in the affected areas, it often initiates or even stimulates the development of tourism in areas which are safe from conflict. For example, Sri Lanka (see Butler & Suntikul, 2013 ; Buultjens, Ratnayake, & Gnanapala, 2016 ). Tourism can also develop, to some extent, during a conflict in areas that are involved but are separated from the conflict itself. For instance, researchers have examined this for Pattaya, Thailand ( Suntikul, 2013 ) or areas that are part of an ongoing conflict, such as Israel ( Mansfeld, 1999 ). Political conflict can occasionally materialise in the creation of new countries and thus provide new tourism destinations ( Butler & Suntikul, 2013 ). Moreover, the resultant political change in the aftermath of a political conflict may recognise tourism as an opportunity and as a newly found source of national income (e.g., Vietnam). In situations when the socio-economic well-being of a destination is under threat from hazardous events or global restructuring, many countries (and implicit destinations) come to realise and appreciate the economic and social contributions made by the tourism sector to their economies ( Butler & Suntikul, 2013 ; Crouch & Ritchie, 1999 ).

However, research has demonstrated that political instability as a result of war or conflict has a major impact on the tourism industry ( Causevic & Lynch, 2013 ) and can lead to negative effects such as decreased revenues, falling numbers of tourists and overnights and increased costs. It also often takes decades for tourists to return to a country following a conflict event and some countries never fully recover from perceptions of violence and instability (e.g., Israel, see Pizam & Mansfeld, 2005 ), whereas others recover quickly through a strategy that downplays their war-torn image (e.g., Croatia and Slovenia, see Naef & Ploner, 2016 ). A strategy to dissociate the country's image from its war heritage by removing any vestiges of the recent war ( Arnaud, 2016 ; Rivera, 2008 ) may come at a cost as destinations fail to differentiate from others nearby and may exacerbate political tensions at home.

Research considerations on post-conflict tourism

Over the years, scholars have focused their attention on several aspects of tourism in post-conflict environments.

First, it has been argued that in the aftermath of a conflict many tourism attractions are reinvented in the form of political, military and physical heritage ( Boyd, 2000 ; Butler & Suntikul, 2013 ), with some of the political sites and attractions being promoted under a wider umbrella of cultural and heritage tourism ( Boyd, 2019b ; Naef & Ploner, 2016 ). For instance, the legacy of the Yugoslavian wars contributed to the production of local cultural heritage through the “touristification” of war memory as found in Sarajevo ( Causevic, 2010 ). In Rwanda, the 1994 genocide memorial sites are increasingly incorporated into the country's tourist product in order to bring a sense of common heritage and a shared purpose between former conflictive parties and help reconciliation and healing ( Friedrich & Johnston, 2013 ). In the case of Northern Ireland, many private sector tourism providers offer educational background to visitors to learn about the conflict and the effects of peace in a divided society ( Boyd, 2000 ; Boyd, 2019b ; Simone-Charteris & Boyd, 2010 ) by connecting the tourist with dark sites and dissonant territory that often divides communities ( Boyd, 2016 ).

Second, research has developed around the phenomena of dark and political tourism (e.g., Lennon & Foley, 2000 ; Miles, 2002 ; Cohen, 2011 ; Simone-Charteris & Boyd, 2011 ; Stone, 2012 ; Isaac & Ashworth, 2012 ), examining them from both supply-side (conflict sites as key attractors) and demand-driven perspective (reasons for visiting including, educational, peacekeeping, rebuilding, commemorative, showing empathy, authenticity, curiosity and thrill of political violence).

Aspects of dark and political tourism that are relevant to our wider discussion, include, how cultural politics has been integrated into the production and consumption of tourism sites ( Light, 2017 ; Logan & Reeves, 2009 ) and how this “difficult” or “dissonant” heritage (different meaning for different groups) is presented and interpreted ( Tunbridge & Ashworth, 1996 ). Interpretation can shift the attention from the sites, to the experience and the sentiments they evoke, and to solving the dilemma of how to satisfy the competing demands of both remembering and forgetting ( Boyd, 2016 ; Friedrich & Johnston, 2013 ; Light, 2017 ; Logan & Reeves, 2009 ; Rivera, 2008 ; Simone-Charteris & Boyd, 2010 ). Causevic and Lynch (2011, p.783) stressed that “in post-conflict settings it becomes very challenging to achieve a balance between ownership, power and interpretation”. Dissimilar interpretations of the conflict can perpetuate the differences between the affected communities and as a result, Ashworth (2015) raises the question as to the role of heritage tourism in the aftermath of a conflict and to whether political and dark tourism actually contributes negatively or positively to the resolution of a conflict.

Another aspect of research has focused on the immediate stage of recovery in the aftermath of a conflict, resulting in the emergence of Phoenix tourism. According to Causevic and Lynch (2011) , tourism in post-conflict areas undergoes a stage of “transformation of the feelings”, the so-called “phoenix” phase that attempts at reconciliation between communities and normalisation of social relationships. This places greater emphasis on local communities and their role in re-creating and deciding how heritage in post-conflict areas is presented ( Zhang, 2017 ). Others view Phoenix tourism as a distinct early stage in post-conflict tourism development, where tourism products are deliberately and commercially developed for economic benefit ( Boyd, 2016 , Boyd, 2019a , Boyd, 2019b ). As such “Phoenix” thinking is part of the wider process of tourism development in post-conflict areas, and forms part of a wider post-conflict recovery ( Boyd, 2019a , Boyd, 2019b ). Table 2 illustrates how certain development ‘criteria’ change from pre-conflict to post-conflict, where the Phoenix phase has distinct characteristics.

Destination change over time: pre-conflict to post-conflict.

Key elements are considered including safety and security, destination perception, infrastructure and entrepreneurial climate, attraction mix and the size of the industry. The nature of development changes from an early form of tourism development in the pre-conflict times, to considerable development loss (albeit with some industry resilience) during the years of conflict. Early recovery of tourism centres around dark and political products (post-conflict Phoenix) but overtime ‘normalisation’ of tourism development occurs where product range has diversified beyond that of dark and political ( Boyd, 2019a , Boyd, 2019b ).

Tourism crises as a result of political conflicts, like most crises, unfold in ways that cannot be forecast and overcome, which tourism has little influence. As Faulkner (2001, p.137) argued “… good management can avoid crisis to some degree but must equally incorporate strategies for coping with the unexpected event over which the organisation has little control”. Despite the development of research in this area, there remains notable gaps.

First, there is a need for a shift towards a multidisciplinary approach and towards use of descriptive models that better explain how crises can be more effectively managed ( Pennington-Gray, 2018 ). Second, while adaptive systems thinking has been applied to tourism management ( Farrell & Twining-Ward, 2004 ; Ritchie, 2004 ), it has not been considered in situations of conflict and political instability. Such an approach enables a deeper understanding of the change process. Third, with a few exceptions (e.g., Novelli, Morgan, & Nibigira, 2012 ; Boukas & Ziakas, 2014 ; Dahles & Susilowati, 2015 ; Buultjens et al., 2016 ), there has been a notable absence of consideration of complexity theory and resilience thinking to situational cases of political instability and armed conflict. Resilience from a tourism perspective, has been predominantly linked to natural disasters and economic crises, sustainability and climate change research. There is, however, scope to explore the synergy between the application of complex adaptive systems and resilience theory and then apply these to crises. Fourth, there is a lack of research that examines crises from a nonlinear perspective. Too much emphasis has been on the development of ‘deterministic models’ ( McKercher, 1999 ). Crises involve different stages and are often unpredictable and evolving phenomena that can cause restructuring of entire tourism systems. This requires a different approach, offering new paradigms and theoretical frameworks to be developed that conceptualise a tourism crises as a dynamic phenomenon. Fifth, there is an absence of crises research that is holistic (supply and demand focused) and integrative (more involvement needed with stakeholders who feel marginalised; e.g., local communities). Finally, while research has examined the use of the label ‘Phoenix tourism’, much of this has been descriptive and conceptual allowing scope for more theoretical and empirical research to be undertaken.

A conceptual framework for post-conflict tourism destination development

In light of the foregoing comments, an integrative conceptual framework is proposed ( Fig. 4 ). This framework brings together concepts from chaos, adaptive systems theory, resilience and vulnerability, offering new thinking of how a destination operates on the ‘edge of chaos’, and has the capacity to adapt, and recover from crises.

A conceptual framework for post-conflict tourism destination development.

Tourism destinations are viewed as complex adaptive systems where development and management can be shaped by two contributing factors, vulnerability to crises and resilience to respond. The authors have taken an approach based on adaptive cycle theory ( Holling, 2001 ; Walker, Holling, Carpenter, & Kinzig, 2004 ) that accommodates growth, stability, reorganisation and transformation of any tourism system. The outcomes that can be triggered by major disturbances are characterised as high magnitude and of long duration (e.g., conflicts and political instability). The framework also adopts a systems approach towards understanding a tourism system, its sub-systems (socio-ecological, socio-technical and socio-political) and the interactions between these responding to change (positive or negative) by self-organising. This self-organising can be either through adoption of a Phoenix state directly after conflict has ceased, a state where there is openness to new approaches, innovation and learning or it can be through reorganisation which leads to a tourism system with characteristics that resemble mature destinations that have never experienced conflict (see Boyd, 2019a , Boyd, 2019b ). The self-organising in the framework refers to the system's adaptive response to change in a post-conflict environment.

Previous studies, discussed earlier, have highlighted the importance of capturing and understanding the interconnected relationship between resilience and vulnerability (e.g., Calgaro et al., 2014 ). The proposed framework emphasises the necessity to understand both a destination's vulnerability to disturbances and its resilience ( Farrell & Twining-Ward, 2004 ). In the framework, vulnerability is determined by three dimensions: exposure (the degree to which a destination is exposed to disturbances and stressors as a result of its particular characteristics); sensitivity to impact (reflected in the pre-existing economic, human, socio-political capital), and its adaptive capacity (e.g., Adger, 2006 ; Calgaro et al., 2014 ).

For many conflict-ridden destinations, building resilience has added particular challenges due to negative perceptions of safety and security and socio-political and economic vulnerabilities, particularly in developing countries or so-called “fragile states” ( Novelli et al., 2012 ) (e.g., Egypt, Haiti and Kashmir). Mapping the complexities of the post-conflict tourism development cycle enables a better understanding of the critical factors that influence a destination's resilience, vulnerability and adaptive response to crises.

The proposed framework addresses the research gap of understanding the dynamics involved in non-linear tourism development, often as a result of conflicts and political instability, and offers tourism authorities of post-conflict destinations a roadmap to assist them in recovery from crises. This framework is designed for destinations that have suffered from long-term crises as opposed to short-term turbulence and unrest, where the interim Phoenix phase of recovery may be more relevant for some destinations over others that have chosen to position recovery around re-development of past tourism assets that the region was known for pre-conflict. The former applies to Northern Ireland where the focus was on development of a dark heritage product of murals and dissonance community heritage that as a product base contrasted with a more diversified tourism offer by tourism bodies, which would later see niche development normalise around food tourism, screen tourism and golf tourism ( Boyd, 2019b ). A Phoenix phase of development can also be noted for Medellin, Colombia, with its focus on narco heritage, the development of new tourism products such as comuna tours (peripheral neighbourhoods), and the dark romanticism of Pablo tours ( Naef, 2018 ). This narrow Phoenix base contrasts with wider opportunity to develop bird-based (avian) tourism in Colombia recognised to have the greatest bird diversity of any country in the world.

The authors view the framework as having utility for those destinations that look to transition directly from conflict back to a normalised tourism environment that existed prior to conflict. In this instance, post-recovery requires adaptiveness in developing proactive policy that avoids a Phoenix phase, for example, establishing tourism development zones, and a deliberate strategy of niche product branding (e.g. Sri Lanka) ( Boyd, 2019a ; Buultjens et al., 2016 ).

Overall, the wider utility of the framework is the potential to highlight the various recovery characteristics involved with post-conflict tourism development whether that involves the interim Phoenix phase or direct transition to a normalised tourism environment.

Crisis, in particular tourism-related, is an area that has received limited attention within the scholarly community. This paper therefore offered the opportunity to first present a review of the scope of this research field, but second to put forward the case to reconceptualise our understanding of the nature of a crises from a multi-perspective, drawing from systems theory, chaos, complexity theory, and utilising concepts from ecological (resilience) and social (vulnerability) theory. Adopting this broad-based perspective offers scholars the opportunity to view a destination that has faced, or is facing, a crisis as an adaptive system that highlights its capacity to respond to change, overcome vulnerability and be resilient.

This new approach has been put forward as a conceptual framework. While it has been specifically applied to one sub-type of crises, that of conflict, it has wider utility to other types of crises. Key here is how a destination adapts (adaptive capacity), moves directly to exhibit the characteristics of mature destinations that have never faced any past major disturbance, or adopts a transitory ‘Phoenix’ phase of initial recovery. What is important in the framework is the role that vulnerability and resilience play. As discussed previously, the framework offers considerable scope for new research to test empirically the nature of relationships that exist between different component parts. The authors invite scholarly research into investigating casual linkages as well as operationalising the framework in varied conflict–ridden destinations. For instance, those that have faced a long protracted image crises and subsequent conflict (e.g., Jammu & Kashmir, and Palestine) compared to those that have faced the re-emergence of short-duration conflict (e.g., Egypt during the Arab Spring, and recent Easter violence and unrest in Sri Lanka). The authors are cognizant that crises vary in their duration and their intensity and that the wider applicability of some aspects of the framework will vary according to the destination and conflict under study. Destinations where conflict has re-emerged but where that has been short in duration can be examined from the standpoint of their ability to be adaptive, resilient to and quickly recover to a condition similar to what they enjoyed prior to conflict. In contrast, for destinations that have been torn apart by protracted civil war, there exist greater scope to research how such destinations began their recovery and the extent to which this relied on an interim Phoenix stage.

A multi-perspective approach to understanding crises has practical implications for many stakeholders involved in destinations that are looking to recover. Policy makers need to be able to explore different strategies of response, where a ‘Phoenix’ phased recovery is favoured or not. This may involve developing appropriate crisis communication strategies that help to facilitate repositioning as well as evaluating tourist reactions on how successful they see those recovery strategies to be, and how they shape the type of tourism development taking place. Local communities and their voices need better understanding, especially if the recovery strategy is to have some deliberate association with the past conflict. The inputs from these different stakeholder groups will inform researchers of the characteristics of a Phoenix type destination or one that normalises around its recovery and renewal. Crises are unwelcome events facing tourism. Regarding conflicts as crises, adopting a holistic and multi-perspective framework offers researchers with much needed insight into how destinations can develop and manage post-conflict.

Acknowledgement

The authors express their gratitude to the British Council and the University Grants Commission of India for their financial support (Grant No: IND/CONT/G/18-19/28), under the umbrella of the UK-India Education and Research Initiative (UKIERI). This paper, research project and the Doctoral Studentship behind it would not have been possible without the support of Ms. Suruchi Pareek (British Council, New Delhi), Professor Nigel Berkeley and Ms. Tanya Liguori (Coventry University), Professor Joëlle Fanghanel, Mr. Matthew Snowden and Ms. Neelam Kaushal (University of West London). The authors also would like to thank the three anonymous reviewers and Dr. Martin Selby (Coventry University) for their helpful comments.

Biographies

Maharaj Vijay Reddy is an Associate Professor in Tourism and Marketing at Coventry University. His research focuses on disaster management and sustainable development.

Stephen W. Boyd is a Professor of Tourism in the Department of Hospitality and Tourism Management at Ulster University. His research focuses on post-conflict tourism development and heritage tourism.

Mirela Nica is a PhD student at Coventry University, pursuing research on post-conflict tourism development in Northern Ireland.

☆ Associate editor: Ritchie Brent

Appendix A Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2020.102940 .

Appendix A. Supplementary data

Supplementary material

• Adger W.N. Social and ecological resilience: Are they related? Progress in Human Geography. 2000; 24 (3):347–364. [ Google Scholar ]
• Adger W.N. Vulnerability. Global Environmental Change. 2006; 16 (3):268–281. [ Google Scholar ]
• Armstrong E.K., Ritchie B.W. The heart recovery marketing campaign: destination recovery after a major bushfire in Australia’s national capital. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing. 2008; 23 (2–4):175–189. [ Google Scholar ]
• Arnaud F. Memorial policies and restoration of Croatian tourism two decades after the war in former Yugoslavia. Journal of Tourism and Cultural Change. 2016; 14 (3):270–290. [ Google Scholar ]
• Ashworth G. Ethnic conflict: Is heritage tourism part of the solution or part of the problem? In: Reisinger Y., editor. Transformational tourism: Host perspectives. 2015. pp. 167–179. [ Google Scholar ]
• Avraham E. Destination image repair during crisis: attracting tourism during the Arab Spring uprisings. Tourism Management. 2015; 47 :224–232. [ Google Scholar ]
• Baggio R. Symptoms of complexity in a tourism system. Tourism Analysis. 2008; 13 :1–20. [ Google Scholar ]
• Baggio R., Sainaghi R. Complex and chaotic tourism systems: Towards a quantitative approach. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management. 2011; 23 (6):840–861. [ Google Scholar ]
• Berbés-Blázquez M., Scott D. The development of resilience thinking. In: Butler R.W., editor. Tourism and resilience. CABI; 2017. pp. 9–22. [ Google Scholar ]
• Biggs D. Understanding resilience in a vulnerable industry: The case of reef tourism in Australia. Ecology and Society. 2011; 16 (1):30. [ Google Scholar ]
• Biggs D., Ban N.C., Hall C.M. Lifestyle values, resilience, and nature-based tourism's contribution to conservation on Australia's Great Barrier Reef. Environmental Conservation. 2012; 39 (4):370–379. [ Google Scholar ]
• Biggs D., Hall C.M., Stoeckl N. The resilience of formal and informal tourism enterprises to disasters: Reef tourism in Phuket, Thailand. Journal of Sustainable Tourism. 2012; 20 (5):645–665. [ Google Scholar ]
• Biggs D., Hicks C.C., Cinner J.E., Hall C.M. Marine tourism in the face of global change: The resilience of enterprises to crises in Thailand and Australia. Ocean & Coastal Management. 2015; 105 :65–74. [ Google Scholar ]
• Biggs R., Schluter M., Schoon M.L. Cambridge University Press; 2015. Principles for building resilience. Sustaining ecosystem services in social ecological systems. [ Google Scholar ]
• Boukas N., Ziakas V. A chaos theory perspective of destination crisis and sustainable tourism development in islands: The case of Cyprus. Tourism Planning and Development. 2014; 11 (2):191–209. [ Google Scholar ]
• Boyd S.W. Heritage’ Tourism in Northern Ireland: Opportunity under peace. Current Issues in Tourism. 2000; 3 (2):150–174. [ Google Scholar ]
• Boyd S.W. Heritage as the USP for tourism in Northern Ireland: Attraction mix, effective storytelling and selling of dark past. In: Hooper G., editor. Heritage and tourism in Britain and Ireland. Palgrave Macmillan; 2016. pp. 245–261. [ Google Scholar ]
• Boyd S.W. Tourism policy and planning in post-conflict destinations. Comparative cases of Northern Ireland and Sri Lanka. In: Andriotis K., Stylidis D., Weidenfeld A., editors. Tourism policy and planning implementation. Issues and challenges. Routledge; 2019. pp. 53–77. [ Google Scholar ]
• Boyd S.W. Post-conflict tourism development in Northern Ireland: Moving beyond murals and dark sites associated with its past. In: Issac R., Cakmak E., Butler R.W., editors. Tourism and Hospitality in Conflict-ridden Destination s. Routledge; 2019. pp. 226–239. [ Google Scholar ]
• Brown N.A., Orchiston C., Rovins J.E., Feldmann-Jensen S., Johnston D. An integrative framework for investigating disaster resilience within the hotel sector. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management. 2018; 36 :67–75. [ Google Scholar ]
• Burnett J.J. A strategic approach to managing crises. Public Relations Review. 1998; 24 (4):475–488. [ Google Scholar ]
• Butler R.W., editor. Tourism and resilience. CABI; 2017. [ Google Scholar ]
• Butler R.W., Suntikul W. Routledge; 2013. Tourism and war. [ Google Scholar ]
• Buultjens J.W., Ratnayake I., Gnanapala W.K.A.C. Post-Conflict tourism development in Sri Lanka: implications for building resilience. Current Issues in Tourism. 2016; 19 (4):355–372. [ Google Scholar ]
• Calgaro E., Lloyd K., Dominey-Howes D. From vulnerability to transformation: A framework for assessing the vulnerability and resilience of tourism destinations. Journal of Sustainable Tourism. 2014; 22 (3):341–360. [ Google Scholar ]
• Campiranon K., Scott N. Critical success factors for crisis recovery management: a case study of Phuket hotels. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing. 2014; 31 (3):313–326. [ Google Scholar ]
• Causevic S. Tourism which erases borders: An introspection into Bosnia and Herzegovina. In: Moufakkir O., Kelly I., editors. Tourism, Progress and peace. CABI; 2010. pp. 48–64. [ Google Scholar ]
• Causevic S., Lynch P. Phoenix tourism. Post-conflict tourism role. Annals of Tourism Research. 2011; 38 (3):780–800. [ Google Scholar ]
• Causevic S., Lynch P. Political (in)stability and its influence on tourism development. Tourism Management. 2013; 34 :145–157. [ Google Scholar ]
• Cheer J.M., Lew A.A. Routledge; 2017. Tourism, resilience and sustainability. [ Google Scholar ]
• Cohen E. Educational dark tourism at an in populo site: the Holocaust Museum in Jerusalem. Annals of Tourism Research. 2011; 38 :193–209. [ Google Scholar ]
• Crouch G.I., Ritchie J.R.B. Tourism, competitiveness, and societal prosperity. Journal of Business Research. 1999; 44 (3):137–152. [ Google Scholar ]
• Dahles H., Susilowati T.P. Business resilience in times of growth and crisis. Annals of Tourism Research. 2015; 51 :34–50. [ Google Scholar ]
• D’Amore L.J. Tourism - A vital force for peace. Annals of Tourism Research. 1988; 15 (2):269–270. [ Google Scholar ]
• Davoudi S. Resilience: A bridging concept or a dead end? Planning Theory and Practice. 2012; 13 (2):299–333. [ Google Scholar ]
• Davoudi S., Brooks E., Mehmood A. Evolutionary resilience and strategies for climate adaptation. Planning Practice and Research. 2013; 28 (3):307–322. [ Google Scholar ]
• De Sausmarez N. Malaysia’s response to the Asian financial crisis. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing. 2004; 15 (4):217–231. [ Google Scholar ]
• De Sausmarez N. Crisis management, tourism and sustainability: the role of indicators. Journal of Sustainable Tourism. 2007; 15 (6):700–714. [ Google Scholar ]
• Espiner S., Orchiston C., Higham J. Resilience and sustainability: A complementary relationship? Towards a practical conceptual model for the sustainability–resilience nexus in tourism. Journal of Sustainable Tourism. 2017; 25 (10):1385–1400. [ Google Scholar ]
• Evans N., Elphick S. Models of crisis management: an evaluation of their value for strategic planning in the international travel industry. International Journal of Tourism Research. 2005; 7 (3):135–150. [ Google Scholar ]
• Farrell B.H., Twining-Ward L. Reconceptualizing tourism. Annals of Tourism Research. 2004; 31 (2):274–295. [ Google Scholar ]
• Farsari I., Butler R.W., Szivas E. Complexity in tourism policies. A cognitive mapping approach. Annals of Tourism Research. 2011; 38 (3):1110–1134. [ Google Scholar ]
• Faulkner B. “The future ain't what it used to be” coping with change, turbulence and disasters in tourism research and destination management. 2000. http://hdl.handle.net/10072/368696 Retrieved from.
• Faulkner B. Towards a framework for tourism disaster management. Tourism Management. 2001; 22 (2):135–147. [ Google Scholar ]
• Faulkner B., Goeldner C.R. 1998 CAUTHE conference report. Progress in Tourism and Hospitality Research tourism. Journal of Travel Research. 1998; 37 :76–80. [ Google Scholar ]
• Faulkner B., Russell R. Chaos and complexity in tourism: In search of a new perspective. Pacific Tourism Review. 1997; 1 (2):93–102. [ Google Scholar ]
• Faulkner B., Vikulov S. Katherine, washed out one day, back on track the next: a post-mortem of a tourism disaster. Tourism Management. 2001; 22 (4):331–344. [ Google Scholar ]
• Fink S. Crisis management: Planning for the inevitable. American Management Association. 1986:20–28. [ Google Scholar ]
• Folke C., Carpenter S.R., Walker B., Scheffer M., Chapin T., Rockstrom J. Resilience thinking: Integrating resilience, adaptability and transformability. Ecology and Society. 2010; 15 (4):20. [ Google Scholar ]
• Friedrich M., Johnston T. Beauty versus tragedy: Thanatourism and the memorialisation of the 1994 Rwandan Genocide. Journal of Tourism and Cultural Change. 2013; 11 (4):302–320. [ Google Scholar ]
• Granville F., Mehta A., Pike S. Destinations, disasters and public relations: Stakeholder engagement in multi-phase disaster management. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management. 2016; 28 :73–79. [ Google Scholar ]
• Hall C.M. Crisis events in tourism: Subjects of crisis in tourism. Current Issues in Tourism. 2010; 13 (5):401–417. [ Google Scholar ]
• Hall C.M., Prayag G., Amore A. Channel View Publications; Bristol: 2018. Tourism and resilience: Individual, organisational and destination perspectives. [ Google Scholar ]
• Henderson J.C. Communicating in a crisis: Flight SQ 006. Tourism Management. 2003; 24 (3):279–287. [ Google Scholar ]
• Henderson J.C. Responding to natural disasters: managing a hotel in the aftermath of the Indian Ocean tsunami. Tourism and Hospitality Research. 2005; 6 (1):89–96. [ Google Scholar ]
• Henderson J.C. Butterworth–Heinemann; 2007. Managing tourism crises. Tourism crises: Causes, consequences and management. [ Google Scholar ]
• Hilhorst D. Disaster, conflict and society in crises: Everyday politics of crisis response. In: Hilhorst D., editor. Disaster, conflict and Society in Crises: Everyday politics of crisis response. Routledge; 2013. pp. 1–16. [ Google Scholar ]
• Holladay P.J., Powell R.B. Resident perceptions of social - ecological resilience and the sustainability of community-based tourism development in the Commonwealth of Dominica. Journal of Sustainable Tourism. 2013; 21 (8):1188–1211. [ Google Scholar ]
• Holling C.S. Understanding the complexity of economic, ecological, and social systems. Ecosystems. 2001; 4 (5):390–405. [ Google Scholar ]
• Hystad P.W., Keller P.C. Towards a destination tourism disaster management framework: long-term lessons from a forest fire disaster. Tourism Management. 2008; 29 (1):151–162. [ Google Scholar ]
• Isaac R.K., Ashworth G.J. Moving from pilgrimage to “dark” tourism: leveraging tourism in Palestine. Culture & Communication. 2012; 11 :149–164. [ Google Scholar ]
• Issac R.K., Cakmak E., Butler R.W., editors. Tourism and hospitality in conflict-ridden destinations. Routledge; 2019. [ Google Scholar ]
• Jiang Y., Ritchie B.W. Disaster collaboration in tourism: motives, impediments and success factors. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management. 2017; 31 :70–82. [ Google Scholar ]
• Kash T., Darling J. Crisis management: Prevention, diagnosis and intervention. Leadership and Organisation Development Journal. 1998; 15 (4):179–186. [ Google Scholar ]
• Kılıçlar A., Uşaklı A., Tayfun A. Terrorism prevention in tourism destinations: Security forces vs. civil authority perspectives. Journal of Destination Marketing and Management. 2018; 8 :232–246. [ Google Scholar ]
• Koleth M. Hope in the dark: geographies of volunteer and dark tourism in Cambodia. Cultural Geographies. 2014; 21 (4):681–694. [ Google Scholar ]
• Kutzner D. Environmental change, resilience, and adaptation in nature-based tourism: Conceptualizing the social-ecological resilience of birdwatching tour operations. Journal of Sustainable Tourism. 2019; 27 (8):1142–1166. [ Google Scholar ]
• Lanouar C., Goaied M. Tourism, terrorism and political violence in Tunisia: evidence from Markov-switching models. Tourism Management. 2019; 70 :404–418. [ Google Scholar ]
• Leiper N. Why “the tourism industry” is misleading as a generic expression: The case for the plural variation, “tourism industries” Tourism Management. 2008; 29 :237–251. [ Google Scholar ]
• Lennon J.J., Foley M. 2000. Dark tourism. Continuum. [ Google Scholar ]
• Lew A.A. Scale, change and resilience in community tourism planning. Tourism Geographies. 2014; 16 (1):14–22. [ Google Scholar ]
• Lichtenstein B.B. Self-organized transitions: A pattern amid the chaos of transformative change. Academy of Management Perspectives. 2000; 14 (4):128–141. [ Google Scholar ]
• Light D. Progress in dark tourism and thanatourism research: An uneasy relationship with heritage tourism. Tourism Management. 2017; 61 :275–301. [ Google Scholar ]
• Liu A., Pratt S. Tourism’s vulnerability and resilience to terrorism. Tourism Management. 2017; 60 :404–417. [ Google Scholar ]
• Liu-Lastres B., Schroeder A., Pennington-Gray L. Cruise line customers’ responses to risk and crisis communication messages: An application of the risk perception attitude framework. Journal of Travel Research. 2019; 58 (5):849–865. [ Google Scholar ]
• Logan W., Reeves K. Remembering places of pain and shame. In: Logan W., Reeves K., editors. Places of pain and shame. Dealing with “difficult heritage”. Routledge; 2009. pp. 1–15. [ Google Scholar ]
• Mansfeld Y. Cycles of war, terror, and peace: determinants and management of crisis and recovery of the Israeli tourism industry. Journal of Travel Research. 1999; 38 (1):30–36. [ Google Scholar ]
• Manson S.M. Simplifying complexity: A review of complexity theory. Geoforum. 2001; 32 (3):405–414. [ Google Scholar ]
• McDonald J.R. Complexity science: An alternative world view for understanding sustainable tourism development. Journal of Sustainable Tourism. 2009; 17 (4):455–471. [ Google Scholar ]
• McKercher B. A chaos approach to tourism. Tourism Management. 1999; 20 (4):425–434. [ Google Scholar ]
• McKercher B. A citation analysis of tourism scholars. Tourism Management. 2008; 29 (6):1226–1232. [ Google Scholar ]
• Mckercher B., Tung V. Publishing in tourism and hospitality journals: Is the past a prelude to the future? Tourism Management. 2015; 50 :306–315. [ Google Scholar ]
• Miles W.F.S. Auschwitz: Museum interpretation and darker tourism. Annals of Tourism Research. 2002; 29 (4):1175–1178. [ Google Scholar ]
• Miller G.A., Ritchie B.W. A farming crisis or a tourism disaster? An analysis of the foot and mouth disease in the UK. Current Issues in Tourism. 2003; 6 (2):150–171. [ Google Scholar ]
• Miller F., Osbahr H., Boyd E., Thomalla F., Bharwani S., Ziervogel G.…Nelson D. Resilience and vulnerability: Complementary or conflicting concepts? Ecology and Society. 2010; 15 (3) [ Google Scholar ]
• Möller C., Wang J., Nguyen H.T. #Strongerthanwinston: tourism and crisis communication through Facebook following tropical cyclones in Fiji. Tourism Management. 2018; 69 :272–284. [ Google Scholar ]
• Naef P. Touring the “comuna”: Memory and transformation in Medellin, Colombia. Journal of Tourism and Cultural Change. 2018; 16 (2):173–190. [ Google Scholar ]
• Naef P., Ploner J. Tourism, conflict and contested heritage in former Yugoslavia. Journal of Tourism and Cultural Change. 2016; 14 (3):181–188. [ Google Scholar ]
• Novelli M., Morgan N., Nibigira C. Tourism in a post-conflict situation of fragility. Annals of Tourism Research. 2012; 39 (3):1446–1469. [ Google Scholar ]
• Novelli M., Gussing Burgess L., Jones A., Ritchie B.W. ‘No Ebola…still doomed’ – The Ebola-induced tourism crisis. Annals of Tourism Research. 2018; 70 :76–87. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Orchiston C., Prayag G., Brown C. Organizational resilience in the tourism sector. Annals of Tourism Research. 2016; 56 :145–148. [ Google Scholar ]
• Page S.J., Yeoman I., Munro C., Connell J., Walker L. A case study of best practice-Visit Scotland’s prepared response to an influenza pandemic. Tourism Management. 2006; 27 :361–393. [ Google Scholar ]
• Paraskevas A. Crisis management or crisis response system? A complexity science approach to organizational crises. Management Decision. 2006; 44 (7):892–907. [ Google Scholar ]
• Paraskevas A., Altinay L. Signal detection as the first line of defence in tourism crisis management. Tourism Management. 2013; 34 :158–171. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Paraskevas A., Arendell B. A strategic framework for terrorism prevention and mitigation in tourism destinations. Tourism Management. 2007; 28 (6):1560–1573. [ Google Scholar ]
• Paraskevas A., Quek M. When Castro seized the Hilton: risk and crisis management lessons from the past. Tourism Management. 2019; 70 :419–429. [ Google Scholar ]
• Paraskevas A., Altinay L., McLean J., Cooper C. Crisis knowledge in tourism: types, flows and governance. Annals of Tourism Research. 2013; 41 :130–152. [ Google Scholar ]
• Pennington-Gray L. Reflections to move forward: Where destination crisis management research needs to go. Tourism Management Perspectives. 2018; 25 :136–139. [ Google Scholar ]
• Pennington-Gray L., London B., Cahyanto I., Klages W. Expanding the tourism crisis management planning framework to include social media: Lessons from the Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill 2010. International Journal of Tourism Anthropology. 2011; 1 (3/4):239–253. [ Google Scholar ]
• Pennington-Gray L., Schroeder A., Gale T. Co-management as a framework for the development of a tourism area response network in the rural community of Curanipe, Maule Region, Chile. Tourism Planning and Development. 2014; 11 (3):292–304. [ Google Scholar ]
• Peters M., Pikkemaat B. Crisis management in alpine winter sports resorts - the 1999 avalanche disaster in Tyrol. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing. 2005; 19 (2–3):9–20. [ Google Scholar ]
• Pizam A., Fleischer A., Mansfeld Y. Tourism and social change: The case of Israeli ecotourists visiting Jordan. Journal of Travel Research. 2002; 41 (11):177–184. [ Google Scholar ]
• Pizam A., Mansfeld Y. Tourism, security and safety: From theory to practice. Elsevier; Amsterdam: 2005. Toward a theory of tourism security; pp. 1–27. [ Google Scholar ]
• Pratt S., Liu A. Does tourism really lead to peace? A global view. International Journal of Tourism Research. 2016; 18 (1):82–90. [ Google Scholar ]
• Prayag G. Symbiotic relationship or not? Understanding resilience and crisis management in tourism. Tourism Management Perspectives. 2018; 25 :133–135. [ Google Scholar ]
• Prideaux B., Witt S.F. The impact of the Asian financial crisis on Australian tourism. Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research. 2000; 5 (1):1–7. [ Google Scholar ]
• Prideaux B., Laws E., Faulkner B. Events in Indonesia: exploring the limits to formal tourism trends forecasting methods in complex crisis situations. Tourism Management. 2003; 24 (4):475–487. [ Google Scholar ]
• Reddy M.V., Shaw G., Williams A.M. South-south cooperation series-working paper nr: 36. UNESCO; Montevideo: 2006. Impact of the tsunami on tourism industry and ecosystem: The Andaman and Nicobar Islands, India. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000178632 Retrieved from. [ Google Scholar ]
• Reddy M.V., Wilkes K. Tourism in the green economy: Rio to post-2015. In: Reddy M.V., Wilkes K., editors. Tourism in the green economy. Routledge; London: 2015. [ Google Scholar ]
• Ritchie B.W. Chaos, crises and disasters: a strategic approach to crisis management in the tourism industry. Tourism Management. 2004; 25 :669–683. [ Google Scholar ]
• Ritchie B.W. Channel View Publications; 2009. Crisis and disaster management for tourism. [ Google Scholar ]
• Ritchie B.W., Jiang Y. A review of research on tourism risk, crisis and disaster management: Launching the annals of tourism research curated collection on tourism risk, crisis and disaster management. Annals of Tourism Research. 2019; 79 [ Google Scholar ]
• Rivera L.A. Managing “spoiled” national identity: War, tourism, and memory in Croatia. American Sociological Review. 2008; 73 (4):613–634. [ Google Scholar ]
• Roberts V. Flood management. Disaster Prevention and Management: An International Journal. 1994; 3 (2):44–60. [ Google Scholar ]
• Russell R., Faulkner B. Entrepreneurship, chaos and the tourism area lifecycle. Annals of Tourism Research. 2004; 31 (3):556–579. [ Google Scholar ]
• Santana G. Crisis management and tourism. Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing. 2004; 15 (4):299–321. [ Google Scholar ]
• Scott N., Laws E. Tourism crises and disasters: Enhancing understanding of system effects. Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing. 2005; 2 (3):37–41. [ Google Scholar ]
• Scott N., Laws E., Prideaux B. Tourism crises and marketing recovery strategies. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing. 2007; 23 (2–4):29–43. [ Google Scholar ]
• Scuttari A., Volgger M., Pechlaner H. Transition management towards sustainable mobility in Alpine destinations: Realities and realpolitik in Italy’s South Tyrol region. Journal of Sustainable Tourism. 2016; 24 (3):463–483. [ Google Scholar ]
• Seeger M.W. Chaos and crisis: Propositions for a general theory of crisis communication. Public Relations Review. 2002; 28 (4):329–337. [ Google Scholar ]
• Seraphin H. Natural disaster and destination management: the case of the Caribbean and hurricane Irma. Current Issues in Tourism. 2018; 22 (1):21–28. [ Google Scholar ]
• Seraphin H., Korstanje M., Gowreesunkar V. Apple Academic Press; Palm Bay: 2019. Post-disaster and post-conflict tourism: Toward a new management approach. [ Google Scholar ]
• Shrivastava P. Crisis theory/practice: Towards a sustainable future. Industrial & Environmental Crisis Quarterly. 1993; 7 (1):23–42. [ Google Scholar ]
• Simone-Charteris M.T., Boyd S.W. Northern Ireland re-emerges from the ashes: The contribution of political tourism towards a more visited and peaceful environment. In: Moufakkir O., Kelly I., editors. Tourism, progress and peace. CABI; 2010. pp. 179–198. [ Google Scholar ]
• Simone-Charteris M.T., Boyd S.W. The potential for Northern Ireland to promote politico-religious tourism: an industry perspective. Journal of Hospitality Marketing and Management. 2011; 20 (3–4):457–483. [ Google Scholar ]
• Sonmez S.F., Apostolopoulos Y. Conflict resolution through tourism cooperation? The case of the partitioned island-state of Cyprus. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing. 2000; 9 (3):35–48. [ Google Scholar ]
• Sonmez S.F., Graefe A.R. Influence of terrorism risk on foreign tourism decisions. Annals of Tourism Research. 1998; 25 (1):112–144. [ Google Scholar ]
• Speakman M. A paradigm for the twenty-first century or metaphorical nonsense? The enigma of complexity theory and tourism research. Tourism Planning and Development. 2017; 14 (2):282–296. [ Google Scholar ]
• Speakman M., Sharpley R. A chaos theory perspective on destination crisis management: evidence from Mexico. Journal of Destination Marketing and Management. 2012; 1 (1–2):67–77. [ Google Scholar ]
• Stone P.R. Dark tourism and significant other death. Towards a model of mortality mediation. Annals of Tourism Research. 2012; 39 (3):1565–1587. [ Google Scholar ]
• Strickland-Munro J.K., Allison H.E., Moore S.A. Using resilience concepts to investigate the impacts of protected area tourism on communities. Annals of Tourism Research. 2010; 37 (2):499–519. [ Google Scholar ]
• Suntikul W. Thai tourism and the legacy of the Vietnam War. In: Butler R.W., Suntikul W., editors. Tourism and war. Routledge; 2013. pp. 105–118. [ Google Scholar ]
• Tsai C.H., Chen C.W. An earthquake disaster management mechanism based on risk assessment information for the tourism industry-a case study from the island of Taiwan. Tourism Management. 2010; 31 (4):470–481. [ Google Scholar ]
• Tunbridge J.E., Ashworth G.J. Wiley; 1996. Dissonant heritage: The management of the past as a resource in conflict. [ Google Scholar ]
• Upadhayaya P.K., Müller-Böker U., Sharma S.R., Umar Upadhayaya P.K. Tourism amidst armed conflict: consequences, copings, and creativity for peace-building through tourism in Nepal. The Journal of Tourism and Peace Research. 2011; 1 (2):22–40. [ Google Scholar ]
• Walker B., Holling C.S., Carpenter S.R., Kinzig A. Resilience, adaptability and transformability in social– ecological systems. Ecology and Society. 2004; 9 (2):5. [ Google Scholar ]
• Wang J., Ritchie B.W. Understanding accommodation managers’ crisis planning intention: an application of the theory of planned behaviour. Tourism Management. 2012; 33 (5):1057–1067. [ Google Scholar ]
• Woosnam K.M., Kim H. Hurricane impacts on southeastern United States coastal national park visitation. Tourism Geographies. 2014; 16 (3):364–381. [ Google Scholar ]
• World Tourism Organisation . Vol 18 (1) World Tourism Organisation; Madrid: 2020. World tourism barometer. [ Google Scholar ]
• Yang, Y., Zhang, H. & Chen, X. (2020). Coronavirus pandemic and tourism: Dynamic stochastic generalequilibrium modeling of infectious disease outbreak. Research note. Annals of Tourism Research. doi: 10.1016/j.annals.2020.102913.Accessed 12.04.2020. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ]
• Zenker S., von Wallpach S., Braun E., Vallaster C. How the refugee crisis impacts the decision structure of tourists: A cross-country scenario study. Tourism Management. 2019; 71 :197–212. [ Google Scholar ]
• Zhang J.J. Rethinking “heritage” in post-conflict tourism. Annals of Tourism Research. 2017; 66 :194–196. [ Google Scholar ]

Academia.edu no longer supports Internet Explorer.

To browse Academia.edu and the wider internet faster and more securely, please take a few seconds to  upgrade your browser .

Enter the email address you signed up with and we'll email you a reset link.

• We're Hiring!
• Help Center

Post Conflict Rebuilding: An Exploration of Destination Brand Recovery Strategies

Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal

Related Papers

David Beirman

The terrorist attacks on New York City and Washington on September 11 2001, followed just over a year later by the murder of almost 200 tourists in Bali and a rash of attacks against tourists in many parts of the world have symbolised an unfortunate association between tourism and political crisis in very recent times. For destination marketing organisations, events beyond their direct managerial control including acts of war, terrorism, crime waves, natural disaster, political instability and epidemics represent the most severe challenge to the marketability of a destination. Events such as September 11 and the 1990-1 Gulf War Crisis had global implications for the tourism industry. Many crisis events which logic would dictate affect one destination only often result in a collateral marketing crisis in neighbouring destinations.

JOHAR – Journal of Hospitality Application & Research

Publishing India Group

The areas which are meant for the tourist activities across the state or country are called as destinations and the detonations which are subjected to any crisis cause decline in the tourist influx at the destination. Most of the time tourists avoided conflict destinations; political instability and other conflict stuff affect tourism activities, which leads to solemn tourism crisis and less inflow of tourists. This paper argues that political uncertain tourist destinations should incorporate selected marketing/management strategies to protect and rebuild their image to reassure potential visitors for the visit of these destinations. For rebranding these destinations as safe and secure destinations the data was collected from both Primary and secondary sources, which was collected through self-design structured questionnaire administered to Destination Management/Marketing Organisations (DMOs). Data was analysed through regression analysis and factor analysis. The paper recommends that if collaborative marketing with prominent media partners will be adopted it will help the DMOS to rebrand the destination like Kashmir valley as a safe and secure destination, also through the involvement of local community can lead a very positive results in terms of gaining confidence and trust in the minds of tourists which in turn lead the increase in tourist influx.

Dalia Amara

After the 25 th January revolution, Egypt wanted to disassociate itself from its negative past of political instability and violence including terrorism attacks, street demonstrations, public disorder, enforced curfews .etc, which had contributed to negative publicity during that time. Unlike natural disasters, political crises can continue to negatively impact the image of a destination for months if not years. Disaster management for tourism has often focused on the post-crisis recovery phase. Based on an online survey (n= 1350) of international tourists, this paper examines tourists’ reactions toward Sharm el Sheikh as a tourism destination. The study investigates the role of rebranding Sharm El Sheikh as a tourist destination as a mean of solving the current problem. It concurs that destinations can exploit the window of opportunities linking destination branding to their crisis management strategies. The study highlights that branding is an essential tool for repositioning the ...

Nova Science

Maximiliano E. Korstanje

From its outset, the specialized literature in tourism fields has adamantly focused on the fragility of the industry. As it is best known, service sectors are inevitably sensitive to external or internal threats. Over decades, tourism research explored different academic paradigms in quest of answers to a pungent question: what is the future of the tourism industry? From different angles, scholars have devoted considerable time and effort to implement conceptual models to protect the tourism and hospitality industries. Nevertheless, the turn of the century witnessed a new stage of uncertainty, fear and anxiety for the West. Just after the attacks on the US in 2001, policymakers, practitioners and academicians enthusiastically adopted the risk perception theory as a valid guideline for understanding how the organic image of affected destinations can be protected. From that moment onwards, it was argued that the industry was in jeopardy because of countless global risks. These risks included political violence, terrorism, crime, natural disasters, and the environmental crisis, without mentioning virus outbreaks. It is difficult to resist the impression that these global dangers plausibly altered the forms of defining tourism as well as leisure activities worldwide. With the benefits of hindsight, far from being solved, these problems have certainly aggravated in the threshold of time. The radicalization of political violence, associated with an acceleration of climate change paved the pathways for the rise of new paradigms. Ultimately, experts agreed we live in a context of constant crisis. The concept of prevention or the precautionary doctrine (which illuminated scholars` works in past years) has very well set the pace for adaptation (adaptancy) as a main conceptual corpus of applied research today. New (morbid) forms of tourism have come to stay. Having said this, the present book, which gathers well-known and global experts specialized in the tourism crisis, explores not only the different crises the sector is facing but also its future in the years to come. The main argument toys with the belief that any crisis opens the doors to new opportunities, stages or moments that lead to the mutation of the industry. This book is recommended to post-graduate students, policy-makers, practitioners, and scholars who are interested in the turbulent times the tourism industry is going through.

Vidyodaya Journal of Management

Pasanthi Jayasinghe

International tourism has evolved into one of the largest global economic sectors, contributing significantly to many national and local economies. However, the crises have caused much loss and damage over the last few decades, burdening the tourism industry. On April 21, 2019, the day of Easter Sunday, Sri Lanka experienced a series of unexpected attacks. It caused many problems and challenges to the tourism industry. This study attempts to understand respondents who are involved in the tourism industry's lived experiences of the Sunday easter attack and their involvement in recovery. The qualitative research method, particularly the phenomenological approach, was adopted to collect and analyse data through the lens of the stakeholder theory. Senior managers representing the different tourism industry sectors were purposively approached and interviewed. Data were analysed using thematic analysis. Findings revealed that the easter Sunday attack negatively influenced the number of tourist arrivals and experiences. However, a well-designed crisis management plan under the control of the official authority can minimise the risk and reduce the negative impact of the incident. Therefore, this study presents an innovative integrated model that could be used as a crisis management plan to restore the tourism industry.

Athula Gnanapala

The 30 year war between the Sri Lankan government and the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) had a considerable impact on the country‟s tourism industry. Yet, despite the war, the industry continued to exhibit a high level of resilience and since the end of the war international visitation has increased rapidly. This study, using a comprehensive review of literature and a series of interviews, examines the impact of the war on the industry as well as the government‟s post-conflict responses. Despite the rapid increase in international tourism numbers various concerns have been raised that government policies are likely to advantage large tourism operators and developers at the expense of small businesses in the informal sector. The development of the industry may also be at the expense of livelihoods of poorer members of society in other industries. A concentration on large-scale developments may reduce the resilience and therefore sustainability of the industry.

Yetta Gurtner

Tourism and travel for leisure are by no means new pursuits. With technological innovations and increased discretionary income over the past sixty years, such activities have rapidly generated a global industry. Renowned for stimulating social and economic growth tourism has also become a motivational force for development in many diverse locations. As a destination or specific host-community becomes more reliant on the opportunities and revenues generated from the tourism sector, it exponentially increases its vulnerability to a potential tourism crisis. Given that the successful tourism enterprise is based on both physical and intangible qualities, the associated hazards are innumerable. Recent events such as the violent terrorist attacks in Bali highlight the relevance of crisis management strategies in facilitating the process of both community and destination recovery.

Journal of Policy Research in Tourism, Leisure and Events

Journal of Tourism Futures

Tazim Jamal

Purpose The aims of this Editorial are twofold: (i) synthesise emergent themes from the special issue (ii) tender four theoretical frameworks toward examination of crises in tourism. Design/methodology/approach The thematic analysis of papers highlights a diversity of COVID-19 related crises contexts and research approaches. The need for robust theoretical interventions is highlighted through the four proposed conceptual frameworks. Findings Crises provides a valuable seam from which to draw new empirical and theoretical insights. Papers in this special issue address the unfolding of crises in tourism and demonstrate how its theorization demands multi and cross-disciplinary entreaties. This special issue is an invitation to examine how global crises in tourism can be more clearly appraised and theorised. The nature of crisis, and the extent to which the global tourism community can continue to adapt remains in question, as dialogues juxtapose the contradictions between tourism growt...

RELATED PAPERS

Lucas Munro

sorayya ghasemi

kevin lopez

Daniel Reim

Neuropsychologia

Margaret Thompson

Statistical Inference for Stochastic Processes

Carin Ludena

Scientific Reports

György Pálfi

Necdet Karakoyun

Darius Ruočkus

Estudios de economía

Jorge Arturo Perez Bernal

World Journal of Cardiovascular Diseases

Journal of Childhood & Developmental Disorders

Mary Cleaton

Dr. Usha Rajagopalan

Carlos Ponce

Jurnal Ilmiah Mahasiswa Agroinfo Galuh

Yaktiworo Indriani

Nihon kenko gakkaishi

Mari Sakaue

Bajo palabra (Madrid)

Belén Nasini

Revista Metropolitana de Governança Corporativa

Roberto Constantino Junior , Roberto G O D O Y Fernandes

HAL (Le Centre pour la Communication Scientifique Directe)

Fabienne Joliet

Value in Health

Bernd Bokemeyer

Erica de Araujo Brandão Couto

Resources, Conservation and Recycling

Denise Casagrande

RELATED TOPICS

•   We're Hiring!
•   Help Center
• Find new research papers in:
• Health Sciences
• Earth Sciences
• Cognitive Science
• Mathematics
• Computer Science
• Academia ©2024

Cultural conflict, tourism

• Living reference work entry
• First Online: 01 January 2015
• Cite this living reference work entry

• Magdalena Banaszkiewicz 3 &
• Karolina Buczkowska 4  

186 Accesses

A cultural conflict is a dislike, hostility, or struggle between communities who have different philosophies and ways of living, resulting in contradictory aspirations and behaviors. The notion originates from sociological conflict theories and anthropological concepts of intercultural relations.

Intensive development of tourism as part of globalizing trends often leads to rapid changes in local cultures of “exotic” territories. The negative consequences of modernization contribute to the intensification of conflicts caused by alternative perceptions of the world determined by different systems of cultural values and beliefs. Including axio-normative conditions, cultural conflicts are often provoked by the socioeconomic situation in given communities.

For a conflict to occur, there must be a direct interaction between at least two different cultures. In tourism this often occurs on the host-guest axis and may arise from tourists’ expectations towards the product. They may be caused by...

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Institutional subscriptions

Hottola, P. 2004 Culture Confusion: Intercultural Adaptation in Tourism. Annals of Tourism Research 31:447-466.

Article   Google Scholar  

Reisinger, I., and L. Turner 2003 Cross-cultural Behavior in Tourism: Concepts and Analysis. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.

Google Scholar  

Robinson, M., and P. Boniface 1999 Tourism and Cultural Conflicts. Wallingford: CABI.

Stein, R. 2008 Itineraries in Conflict: Israelis, Palestinians and the Political Lives of Tourism. Durham: Duke University Press.

Book   Google Scholar  

Download references

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Jagiellonian University, Cracow, Poland

Magdalena Banaszkiewicz

Poznan University School of Physical Education, Poznan, Poland

Karolina Buczkowska

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Magdalena Banaszkiewicz .

Editor information

Editors and affiliations.

School of Hospitality Leadership, University of Wisconsin-Stout, Menomonie, Wisconsin, USA

Jafar Jafari

School of Hotel and Tourism Management, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR

Honggen Xiao

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2014 Springer International Publishing Switzerland

About this entry

Cite this entry.

Banaszkiewicz, M., Buczkowska, K. (2014). Cultural conflict, tourism. In: Jafari, J., Xiao, H. (eds) Encyclopedia of Tourism. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-01669-6_249-1

Download citation

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-01669-6_249-1

Received : 28 November 2014

Accepted : 28 November 2014

Published : 25 September 2015

Publisher Name : Springer, Cham

Online ISBN : 978-3-319-01669-6

eBook Packages : Springer Reference Business and Management Reference Module Humanities and Social Sciences Reference Module Business, Economics and Social Sciences

• Publish with us

Policies and ethics

• Find a journal
• Track your research

The past, present and future of Haiti as a post-colonial, post-conflict and post-disaster destination

Journal of Tourism Futures

ISSN : 2055-5911

Article publication date: 9 August 2018

Issue publication date: 21 November 2018

The purpose of this paper is to determine the future of the tourism industry in Haiti. More specifically, the paper answers the following question: will Haiti be able to reclaim a positive image and leading position in the Caribbean as a tourist destination?

Design/methodology/approach

Within the paradigm of theory building and exploratory approach, this conceptual study is based on a narrative literature review.

The turning point in the development of the tourism industry in Haiti has been the 2010 earthquake which has triggered a will to provide quality products and service specifically in the hospitality sector, the most dynamic sector of the tourism industry. With the diaspora, Haiti has the potential to reclaim a positive image and a leading position in the Caribbean. That said, before performing at this level, the destination must first and foremost contribute to the wellbeing of its people as a sine qua non condition for the success of its tourism industry.

Practical implications

The findings of this research may help potential investors to decide whether or not they want to invest in Haiti. The findings of the paper may also assist the DMO in its branding and marketing strategy.

Originality/value

The alleviation of poverty using tourism as a tool in a post-colonial, post-conflict and post-disaster context should be analysed, understood and approached from a human aspect point of view and perspective. Resilience is what better describes the tourism industry and the locals in Haiti. The locals are neither passive nor powerless.

Seraphin, H. (2018), "The past, present and future of Haiti as a post-colonial, post-conflict and post-disaster destination", Journal of Tourism Futures , Vol. 4 No. 3, pp. 249-264. https://doi.org/10.1108/JTF-03-2018-0007

Emerald Publishing Limited

Copyright © 2018, Hugues Seraphin

Published in Journal of Tourism Futures . Published by Emerald Publishing Limited. This article is published under the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY 4.0) licence. Anyone may reproduce, distribute, translate and create derivative works of this article (for both commercial and non-commercial purposes), subject to full attribution to the original publication and authors. The full terms of this licence may be seen at http://creativecommons.org/licences/by/4.0/legalcode

1. Introduction

Despite the fact that the tourism industry is a major economic industry in the world ( Botti, 2010 ; Cooper and Hall, 2004 ; Bertho-Lavenir, 1999 ), there is no consensus among academics regarding its date of birth ( Séraphin, 2012 ). For Youel (1998) , tourism started with the Greek who organised the first Olympic Games in 776 BC. For Boyer (1999) tourism started with the first published tourist guide in 1551. Boyer (1999) also identified the Grand Tour (seventeenth to eighteenth century) as an important factor in the development of the industry. For King et al. (2006) , tourism started in the eighteenth century with the development of transport and more specifically the introduction of the stagecoach in the mid-eighteenth century. Before then, it was rare for people to travel any further than the nearest town in their entire life. Hoerner (2002) also acknowledged the role played by transport in the development of the tourism industry, but he mainly took into consideration the first packaged tour put together by Thomas Cook in 1841 as the starting point of the tourism industry. That said, the tourism industry only started to be considered as an economic activity in 1911 ( Scutariu, 2009 ). The reasons why people have been travelling and are still travelling for are sport and leisure; culture; visiting friends and relatives; business; health; religion; education ( Barrow, 2008 ; Draper, 2007 ; Davidson, 1998 ; Davidson and Maitland, 1997 ) that contributed to the branding of some destinations. As a result, since 1682, date when Louis XIV moved to Versailles, France established itself as a destination known for the quality of its food and luxury hotels. Also, cities like Bath (in England), Baden (Germany) and Vichy (France) became known as health destinations because of their natural water sources used to treat some conditions, hence the origin of the word Spa that stands for Salus Per Aqua ( Séraphin, 2012 ; Barrow, 2008 ; Davidson, 1998 ; Davidson and Maitland, 1997 ). In the eighteenth century, places like Ostend (Belgium) and in the nineteenth century, places like Miami Beach and Palm Beach (USA) became known as seaside destinations. As early as the nineteenth century, Switzerland for instance became known for its mountains ( Merlin, 2001 ). Destination branding can therefore be considered as a long existing phenomenon. “Brands and branding have existed for as long as it has been possible to trace artefacts of human existence” ( Moore and Reid, 2008 , p. 419).

As for Haiti, it is located between the North Atlantic and the Caribbean Sea. It occupies the western, smaller portion of the island of Hispaniola, in the Greater Antillean archipelago, which it shares with the Dominican Republic. Haiti was the richest French colony. It was even called the “Pearl of the Antilles” ( Roc, 2008 ). The image of Haiti then became associated with Toussaint L’ Ouverture, also called the “Bonaparte of the Antilles” who set free all Haitian slaves. Despite the fact that he recognised the sovereign rights of France, in 1801, Toussaint L’ Ouverture was seized by the French in Cap-Français and shipped as a prisoner to France in 1802. He died in 1803. Dessalines who then ordered the massacre of most of the whites who had remained on the island became a key emblem of the country. In 1804, Dessalines declared the independence of Haiti. The country became known worldwide as the first black republic in the world (Hector and Hurbon, 2009, cited in Gilles, 2012 ). Up to that point Haiti was positively branded as the pearl of the Caribbean and then as the first black republic. The positive image of the destination did not last very long due to an absence of leadership ( Séraphin, Ambaye, Gowreesunkar and Bonnardel, 2016 ; Thomson, 2004 ). Today, the country is branded as politically unstable, disorganised, very poor and unsafe ( Ève di Chiara, 1988 ; Higate and Henry, 2009 ; Girault, 2010 ).

With its negative image it is very difficult for Haiti to develop a sustainable tourism industry ( Séraphin, 2014a ). Despite this difficult context, tourism development has been for a very long time one of the main priorities of the Haitian governments ( Séraphin, 2014a ). The first administration in charge of tourism was created in 1939 ( Séraphin, 2014a ). Haiti was one of the most popular tourist destination in the Caribbean between 1940s and 1960s. It was branded as a cultural destination ( Séraphin, 2010 ; Thomson, 2004 ). Under the Duvalier dictatorial administration (1957–1986) Haiti stopped being considered as a destination. It is only in 2013 that Haiti reclaimed its position as a tourist destination ( Séraphin, 2014a ).

As any other destination, the Haitian Destination Marketing Organisation (DMO) has adopted strategies to mitigate its problematic image ( Alvarez and Campo, 2014 ). Thus, as part of its rebranding strategy, the DMO adopted a new logo in 2012 ( Séraphin, Ambaye, Gowreesunkar and Bonnardel, 2016 ). The private sector also embarked a rebranding strategy to match the ambition of the destination. The case of Haiti provides solid evidence that the tourism sector is especially vulnerable to exogenous factors like political instability, economic crisis, natural disasters and the outbreak of diseases ( Hai and Chick, 2011 ; Ritchie et al. , 2004 ). Those factors can cause destinations to decline and sometimes even totally disappear from the tourism map. In this respect, tourism is a problematic industry ( Getz, 2008 ) but also a resilient industry ( Korstanje and Ivanov, 2012 ).

Will Haiti be able to reclaim its positive image and a leading position in the Caribbean as a tourist destination?

Haiti was chosen as a destination for three main reasons. First, it was an opportunity to study unsuccessful short-lived brands, as most attention is given to successful, long-live brands ( Lopes and Guimaraes, 2012 ), subsequently enabling this paper to touch upon the topic of destination struggles in a post-colonial, post-conflict and post-disaster (PCCD) context. Second, tourism in post-conflict destinations is a newly emerging sub-field of tourism studies ( Alvarez and Campo, 2011, 2014 ; Novelli et al. , 2012 ).

2. Historical and contextual framework

2.1 haïti: a cultural destination (1939–1960).

The first Haitian DMO was created (and managed by Sylvio Cator) on 17 May, 1939, right after the American occupation (1915–1934). The president at the time, Stenio Vincent (1939–1941), was the first to have identified tourism as a potential source of income for the country ( Clammer, 2012 ). The Port-au-Prince International Exhibition (1949) happened under the administration of Dumarsais Estimé. This event contributed to put Haiti on the world map of tourist destinations ( Séraphin, 2014a ). As a result, Haiti became one the most popular tourist destination in the Caribbean between 1940s and 1960s ( Séraphin, 2010 ), and as such attracted an international jet set. Mick Jagger, Charles Addams and Jackie Kennedy were among those who popularised Haiti ( Thomson, 2014 ; Tardieu, 2014 ). As for the first logo of the Haitian DMO (designed in 1939), it was representative of the colonial aesthetics adopted by former colonies ( Deneault, 2005 ). Based on Bancel (2005) research on ethnic tourism and colonialism, the logo could be seen as a will from the destination to brand itself as a natural, authentic, welcoming destination, with strong and stable historical background and landmarks, untouched by globalisation. The Haitian tourism industry has its best years under Paul Magloire’s administration. This period (1950–1956) was known as the Golden Age ( Destin, 2014 ).

2.2 A period of neglect for “the Pearl of the Antilles” (1960–2010)

This period was mainly characterised by the Duvalier era. Francois Duvalier (1957–1971) did not invest in infrastructures. However, Jean-Claude Duvalier (1971–1986), his son, a.k.a “Baby Doc” started in 1971, an “economic revolution” (approved and supported by the Americans) that contributed to attract foreign direct investments despite the political context that could be described as “repressive” ( Bazabas, 1997 ). It is in this context that Club Med opened a resort in Haiti in 1981 ( Séraphin, 2014a ). As in other Central American countries many investments were made by corporates after getting concessions from local governments keen to attract foreign capital to modernise their economies ( Buchelli, 2008 ). The American embargo in 1991, as a response to the military junta that overthrown Jean-Bertrand Aristide, also thrown Haiti into a deep economic and social crisis ( Bazabas, 1997 ). It is in this context that Club Med decided to leave Haiti in 1996 ( Séraphin, 2014a ). Despite the difficult economic context described above, the number of tourists continued to grow ( Table I ), and as a consequence hotels were built ( Table II ).

At this stage it is important to mention the fact that the tourism industry (and specifically the hospitality sector) survived in Haiti thanks to the presence of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and other international organisations. The country stopped receiving “conventional tourists” between the 1960s and 2010s ( Séraphin, 2014a ). It is during this period that the number of international organisations (NGOs/military from the MINUSTAH) reached its peak ( Séraphin, 2014a ; Thomson, 2004 ).

Despite the context, the French magazine, Paris Match (18 September, 1997) hailed Haiti to be a destination to experience. The special issue (on Haiti) in this magazine also emphasised on the huge potential of the destination (despite the fact it was an unsafe destination).

2.3 Rebirth after a dark period: tourism in the republic of NGOs (2010–2016)

The earthquake that shook Haiti to its foundations on 12 January 2010 further damaged the tourism industry as most of the infrastructures and facilities of the sector were destroyed ( Séraphin, 2014a ). Saint-Louis explained that the earthquake put an end to the tourism industry in Haiti. The only “tourists” in Haiti were staff working for NGOs. As for the only conventional tourists, they stayed in the resort of Labadee, an enclave developed and managed by Royal Caribbean International ( Seraphin et al. , 2018 ). Despite the fact the locals are not fully benefiting from this form of tourism (enclave), it has proven to be so far, a success story ( Seraphin et al. , 2018 ).

Under the administration of President Martelly (2011–2016), the tourism was re-established as a priority. It was also during this period that Haiti reclaimed its position on the world map as a tourist destination ( Séraphin, 2014a ). The case of Haiti shows the importance of political stability on the performance of a destination ( Hai and Chick, 2011 ; Ritchie et al. , 2004 ). In 2012, the DMO adopted a new logo that symbolises the new positive image that the Ministry of Tourism of Haiti wants to spread around. In this endeavour, in 2014, the Haitian DMO started a classification of the hotels in Haiti. The purpose was to motivate hoteliers to provide quality products and services. So far, this has been an ongoing issue ( Thomson, 2014 ; Théodat, 2004 ).

Hotel Royal Oasis (Occidental Hotels and Resorts – bought by Barcelo Hotels in June 2015) opened in December 2012.

NH Haiti El Rancho (NH Hotel Group) opened in December 2012.

The Best Western Premier (Best Western) opened in April 2012.

Marriott, opened in March 2015.

Hilton Garden Inn, opened in 2016.

It is also important to mention that the all the above international hotels opened as part of a master plan of the government: “Haiti is open for business”. Hotel Oasis is totally representative of the rebirth of the tourism industry in Haiti ( Séraphin, 2014a ). With this first world-class international hotel, the destination has started to brand itself as a quality destination.

2.4 Summarising and understanding the performance of Haiti as a destination (1939–2016)

Overall, this historical overview of the tourism industry in Haiti reveals that the destination has a huge potential that has never been fully exploited due to political instability. Also, some primary research (below) also reveals that the poor performance of the destination can also be explained by a discrepancy between the way the DMO and outsiders perceive the destination. The only correlation between both perceptions is the “restriction of rights” and “assassinations”. The following paragraph explains the method used to collect the data.

2.5 Methodology

Expert opinion is a qualitative method used when historical data are not available or very limited and dealing with complex issues ( Gandy and Casmira Coladangelo, 2011 ; De Bruin and Rosemann, 2005 ). This method provides robust forecast for planning ( Hammond and Wellington, 2013 ). Once recruited, the experts were asked a series of questions using a questionnaire (the Appendix ).

The panel of expert for this study included three academics and six practitioners. The academics were chosen not only due to their understanding of qualitative research methods but also because of their critical way of thinking and their expertise in the area of tourism and hospitality management. As for practitioners they were chosen, not only because of their expertise but also because of their high degree of influence and their ability to make things happen. The questionnaire was sent to the panel using Google+.

A questionnaire designed by Seddighi et al. (2001) . The objective of their questionnaire was to highlight the difference of perception between travel agents concerning the impact of political instability on tourism.

Research carried by Faroudi et al . (2014) on corporate image and reputation.

Research carried by Lewis et al. (1995, cited in Chacko and Marcell, 2008 ) on destination repositioning strategy. The results of the study are shown in Table III .

In order to address the issue of the image of the destinations by potential visitors, Séraphin, Butcher and Konstanje (2016) suggested that visitors should be educated a pre-visit stage, using Visual Online Learning Materials, as a better understanding of a destination contributes to develop a connection between potential visitors and the destination.

3. The future: a topic of interest in tourism

3.1 potential approaches to predict the future.

The Butler’s Tourism Area Life Cycle (TALC), hailed as one of the most popular models used to analyse tourism development ( Garay and Canoves, 2011 ). The model is summarised in Table IV .

The Model of Creative Destruction ( Table V ) developed by Mitchell (1998) , to explain the level of creation and destruction that occurs with tourism development in a destination. In other words, the level of commodification of a destination. Indeed, as part of the capitalism process, Hano (2012) explained that tourism needs to destroy some things in order to create new ones. Like the TALC model, this model presents different stages.

Still concerning the evolution of tourism, Yeoman and McMahon-Beatte (2016) identified five driving forces (political capital; visionary state; passion, identity and culture; affluence and exclusivity; fluid experience) that can positively and/or negatively influence the future of tourism. Hartman and Zandberg (2015) added to that list legacy, level of investments, community involvement and impact on culture. Finally, as for Hensens (2015) , he added to the list, social media as a rating trend/practice adopted by travellers and travel agents.

3.2 Predicting the future of the tourism industry in Haiti

With regard to the findings in Section 3.1, in order to determine the future of the tourism industry in Haiti, we are going to create a new matrix to identify where exactly tourism in Haiti is at. So this new matrix will be a merge of TALC and Model of Creative Destruction ( Figure 1 ). In this paper, we consider the two models as complementary. TALC will give us an overall idea of the level of development of the industry in Haiti, whereas the Model of Creative Destruction will provide a more specific idea of the level of commodification the destination is at. We are going to use the findings from Section 2 , to locate Haiti on the newly created matrix.

Haiti is at Stage 2 of the newly developed matrix. A more in-depth analysis based on Butler (2009) theory on the four changes of tourism (tourism dynamics; location of tourism; forms of tourism; and timing of tourism) reveals that the tourism industry in Haiti and particularly the hospitality sector is quite dynamic as a result of investment and planned renovation. As for the location of tourism, the Haitian diaspora (as tourists and investors) has proven to be a real asset for the tourism industry ( Séraphin and Paul, 2015 ). As a form of tourism, diaspora tourism has been identified as a strong opportunity for Haiti ( Séraphin and Paul, 2015 ). The post-earthquake period could be therefore considered as the starting point of the rejuvenation of the tourism industry in Haiti.

“Unlocking change through transformational leadership”.

“Unlocking change through enterprise reform”.

“Unlocking change through technology innovation”.

“Unlocking change through corporate transparency”.

“Unlocking change through stakeholders’ engagement”.

“Unlocking change through social responsibility”.

“Unlocking change through integrated value”.

Shared value has the ability to reshape capitalism and its relationship to society.

With the emergence of the diaspora in Haiti, we believe that all the changes suggested by Visser (2015) could be achieved on the long term. The key challenge for Haiti will be to avoid the commodification of its heritage/culture, as for Séraphin (2014b) this is a key factor of appeal for the destination. That said, with the emergence of the diaspora, Séraphin (2014a) reckoned that Haiti will develop a hybrid form of tourism due to the ambidextrous nature of the diaspora.

4. Discussion

4.1 defining diaspora as an ambidextrous group.

The diaspora is defined as a geographic dispersion of people belonging to the same community ( Bordes-Benayoun, 2002 ). As for diasporans, they are “foreign born population and their off-springs maintaining relations to their country of origin”. This group contributes to the economy and social development of its country of origin mainly through remittance and social philanthropy ( Minto-Coy, 2016 ). Whereas the focus on diaspora has tended to be on remittance and benevolence, there is emerging recognition of their economic impact via entrepreneurship, innovation and in international business with implications for firms in the home country ( Minto-Coy, 2016 ). Diasporas are also noted as having access to critical resources, networks and knowledge not easily accessible in the country of origin and as such, they are important change agents and drivers of innovation ( USAID, 2015 ). Minto-Coy and Elo (2017 , p. 30), for instance, referred to diasporans who invest in their home country as “engaging heroic entrepreneurs”. In Haiti, diasporans as investors brought considerable changes in the hospitality sector ( Séraphin and Paul, 2015 ). As a group, diaspora could be considered as ambidextrous by nature, also because it uses its presence in the host country to reinvent itself (socially, economically and sometimes politically) in order to become a transformative agent in its home country ( Figure 2 ).

4.2 Reframing tourism development in Haiti

Tourism is not a prime vector for the alleviation of poverty. The socio-cultural and political context also play an important role in the alleviation of poverty. Indeed, Edgell and Swanson (2013 , p. 270) acknowledged that “the more peaceful the world, the greater are the opportunities for helping to reduce poverty”. Page (2013) also added the fact that tourism only contributes to the reduction of poverty only if there is no barrier hindering it. Among the barriers, we can mention: the lack of education and skills of the population that stop them from identifying opportunities, the limited access to finance to create their own business, etc. Dupont (2009) , who argued that there is a one-way direction between economic development and tourism development, also argued that there is a one-way direction between poverty alleviation and tourism development. Indeed, taking the example of Haiti, Dupont (2009) explained that it is the economic development of a country that triggers the tourism development of that country and not the other way round. Likewise, it is the alleviation of poverty that leads to the development of tourism and not the other way round. Based on the above, we can conclude that tourism is the result or the consequence of a set number of parameters and not at the starting point. ( Séraphin, Gowreesunkar and Ambaye (2016) went a step further by arguing that PCCD destinations are not performing well as tourism destinations because primary needs of the population are not addressed. Equally important, they added that there is one-way relationship between the improvement of the wellbeing of the locals and the performance of the destination. In other words, it is the wellbeing of the locals that is going to contribute to the improvement of the tourism performance of the destination and not the other way round. Indeed, research in tourism provides evidence that tourism development almost happens naturally with the improvement of the standard of living of the local population ( Merlin, 2001 ).

5. Conclusion

The turning point in the development of the tourism industry in Haiti has been the 2010 earthquake, which has triggered a will to provide quality products and service, specifically in the hospitality sector, the most dynamic sector of the tourism industry in Haiti. With the diaspora, Haiti has the potential to reclaim a positive image and a leading position in the Caribbean. That said, before performing at this level, the destination must first and foremost contribute to the wellbeing of it people as a sine qua non condition for the success of its tourism industry.

Many efforts have been put into tourism as a tool to alleviate poverty ( Holden, 2013 ). However, all the efforts in place are direct strategies (with a focus on economic tool). In this paper, we are arguing that alleviation of poverty using tourism as a tool, in a PCCD context should be analysed, understood and approached from a human aspect point of view and perspective. Resilience that Hutton (2016) defined as the capacity of a group to strive and to reframe its relationship to its environment with limited economic means is for us what better describes the tourism industry and the locals in Haiti. Because of that we are also arguing that the tourism industry and local people in PCCD destinations (and in our case, Haiti) are neither passive nor powerless.

Matrix of tourism development in a post-colonial, post-conflict and post-disaster destination

Diaspora as an ambidextrous group

Number of tourists visiting Haiti

Factors impacting on the perception of the destination

Butler’s TALC

Source: Adaptation of Mitchell (1998)

Alvarez , M.D. and Campo , S. ( 2011 ), “ Controllable versus uncontrollable information sources: effects on the image of Turkey ”, International Journal of Tourism Research , Vol. 13 , pp. 310 - 23 .

Alvarez , M.D. and Campo , S. ( 2014 ), “ The influence of political conflicts on country image and intention to visit: a study of Israel’s image ”, Tourism Management , Vol. 40 , pp. 70 - 8 .

Bancel , N. ( 2005 ), “ Tourisme ethnique: Une reconquete symbolique? ”, in Blanchard , P. and Bancel , N. (Eds), Traces et memoires coloniales en France , Autrement , Paris , pp. 264 - 300 .

Barrow , S. ( 2008 ), “ Edutourism, edutourism, edutourism…There is no darkness but ignorance ”, Tourism Society Journal , Vol. 137 , pp. 2 - 3 .

Bazabas , D. ( 1997 ), Du marche de rue en Haiti. Le systeme urbain de Port-au-Prince face a ses enterprises ‘d’espaces-rue , L’ Harmattan , Paris .

Bertho-Lavenir , C. ( 1999 ), La roue et le stylo. Comment nous sommes devenus touristes , Odile Jacob , Paris .

Bordes-Benayoun , C. ( 2002 ), “ Les diasporas, dispersion spatiale, expérience sociale ”, Autrepart , Vol. 22 .

Botti , L. ( 2010 ), “ Pour une gestion de la touristicité des territoires: Stratégie collective et management de l’attractivité ”, Mondes du tourisme , Vol. 1 , pp. 1 - 5 .

Boyer , M. ( 1999 ), Histoire du Tourisme de Masse, Que sais-je? , PUF , Paris .

Buchelli , M. ( 2008 ), “ Multinational corporations, totalitarian regimes and economic nationalism: United Fruit Company in Central America, 1899-1975 ”, Business History , Vol. 50 No. 4 , pp. 433 - 54 .

Butler , R. ( 2009 ), “ Tourism in the future: cycles, waves or wheels? ”, Futures , Vol. 41 , pp. 346 - 52 .

Chacko , H.E. and Marcell , H. ( 2008 ), “ Repositioning a tourism destination ”, Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing , Vol. 23 Nos 2-4 , pp. 223 - 35 .

Clammer , P. ( 2012 ), Haiti , Bradt , Guildford .

Cooper , C. and Hall , M. ( 2004 ), Contempory Tourism: An International Approach , Elsevier , Londres .

Davidson , R. ( 1998 ), Travel and Tourism in Europe , Longman , Londres .

Davidson , R. and Maitland , R. ( 1997 ), Tourism Destination , Hodder and Stoughton , London .

De Bruin , T. and Rosemann , M. ( 2005 ), “ Towards a business process management maturity model ”, paper presented at the 13th European Conference of information systems, Regensburg, 26-28 May .

Deneault , A. ( 2005 ), “ Esthetique coloniale, paradis fiscaux et vahines ”, in Blanchard , P. and Bancel , N. (Eds), Traces et memoires coloniales en France , Autrement , Paris , pp. 286 - 96 .

Destin , Y. ( 2014 ), “ Haiti’s prized presidential legacies ”, The Journal of Haitian Studies , Vol. 20 No. 2 , pp. 191 - 203 .

Draper , R. ( 2007 ), “ Tennnis’ contribution to the british economy ”, The Tourism Society Journal , Vol. 132 , p. 13 .

Dupont , L. ( 2009 ), “ Cointégration et causalité entre développement touristique, croissance économique et réduction de la pauvreté : Cas de Haïti ”, Revue Caribéennes , available at: http://etudescaribeennes.revues.org (accessed 8 May 2018 ).

Edgell , D.L. Sr and Swanson , J.R. ( 2013 ), Tourism Policy and Planning. Yesterday, Today, and Tomorrow , Routledge , Abingdon .

Ève di Chiara , C. ( 1988 ), Le dossier Haiti: Un pays en peril , Talladier , Paris .

Faroudi , P. , Melewar , T.C. and Gupta , S. ( 2014 ), “ Linking corporate logo, corporate image, and reputation: an examination of consumer perceptions in the financial setting ”, Journal of Business Research , Vol. 67 No. 11 , pp. 2269 - 81 .

Ford , R.C. and Peeper , W.C. ( 2007 ), “ The past as prologue: predicting the future of the convention and visitor bureau industry on the basis of its history ”, Tourism Management , Vol. 28 , pp. 1104 - 14 .

Gandy , J.R. and Casmira Coladangelo , R. ( 2011 ), “ Using Delphi methods to project smoking cessation in Northern England ”, Journal of Smoking Cessation , Vol. 6 No. 1 , pp. 3 - 8 .

Garay , L. and Canoves , G. ( 2011 ), “ Life cycles, stages and tourism history: the Catalonia (Spain) experience ”, Annals of Tourism Research , Vol. 38 No. 2 , pp. 651 - 71 .

Getz , D. ( 2008 ), Event Studies. Theory, Research and Policy for Planned Events , Elsevier , London .

Gilles , A. ( 2012 ), “ The social bond, conflict and violence in Haiti ”, available at: www.prio.no (accessed 8 May 2018 ).

Girault , C. ( 2010 ), “ Deux cents ans de malheur ”, Le Nouvel Observateur , No. 2359 , pp. 42 - 3 .

Hai , A. and Chick , A.R. ( 2011 ), “ Political stability: country image for tourism industry in Bangladesh ”, paper presented at the conference international sur les sciences sociales, l’économie et l’art (ISC), Malaysia, 8 January .

Hammond , M. and Wellington , J. ( 2013 ), Research Methhods. The Key Concepts , Routledge , London .

Hano , K. ( 2012 ), “ Tourism and the creative desctruction in Krasiczyn, Poland ”, Journal of Hospitality and Tourism , Vol. 10 No. 1 , pp. 113 - 28 .

Hartman , S. and Zandberg , T. ( 2015 ), “ The future of mega sport events: examining the ‘Dutch approach’ to legacy planning ”, Journal of Tourism Futures , Vol. 1 No. 2 , pp. 108 - 16 .

Hensens , W. ( 2015 ), “ The future of hotel rating ”, Journal of Tourism Futures , Vol. 1 No. 1 , pp. 69 - 73 .

Higate , P. and Henry , M. ( 2009 ), Insecure Spaces , Zeb Books , London .

Hoerner , J.M. ( 2002 ), Traité de tourismologie. Pour une nouvelle science touristique , Presses Universitaires de Perpignan , Perpignan .

Holden , A. ( 2013 ), Tourism, Poverty and Development , Routledge , Abingdon .

Hudson , S. and Hudson , R. ( 2013 ), “ Engaging with consumers using social media: a case study of music festivals ”, International Journal of Event and Festival Management , Vol. 4 No. 3 , pp. 206 - 23 .

Hutton , M. ( 2016 ), “ Neither passive nor powerless: reframing economic vulnerability via resilience pathways ”, Journal of Marketing Management , Vol. 32 Nos 3-4 , pp. 252 - 74 .

King , C. , Kerr. , A. and Jefferies , M. ( 2006 ), BTEC First, Travel and Tourism , 2nd ed. , Heinemann , Oxford .

Korstanje , M.E. and Ivanov , S. ( 2012 ), “ Tourism as a form of new psychologicalresilience: the inception of dark tourism ”, Revista de Cultura e Turismo , Vol. 6 No. 4 , pp. 56 - 71 .

Ladkin , A. ( 1999 ), “ Life and work history analysis: the value of this research method for hospitality and tourism ”, Tourism Management , Vol. 20 , pp. 37 - 45 .

Lopes , T. and Guimaraes , P. ( 2012 ), “ Introduction: behind the brand ”, Business History Review , Vol. 86 No. 2 , pp. 235 - 8 .

Merlin , P. ( 2001 ), Tourisme et amenagement touristique. Des objectifs inconciliables? , La Documentation Francaise , Paris .

Minto-Coy , I.D. ( 2016 ), “ Diaspora engagement for development in the Caribbean ”, in Chikanda , A. , Crush , J. and Walton-Roberts , M. (Eds), Diasporas, Development and Governance in the Global South , Springer , New York, NY .

Minto-Coy , I. and Elo , M. ( 2017 ), “ Innovation, productivity & competitiveness ”, Business Review , March/April , pp. 29 - 30 .

Mitchell , C.J.A. ( 1998 ), “ Entrepreneurialsim, commodification and creative destruction: a model of post-modern community development ”, Journal of Rural Studies , Vol. 14 No. 3 , pp. 273 - 86 .

Moore , K. and Reid , S. ( 2008 ), “ The birth of brand : 4000 years of branding ”, Business History , Vol. 50 No. 4 , pp. 419 - 32 .

Novelli , M. , Morgan , N. and Nibigira , C. ( 2012 ), “ Tourism in a post-conflict situation of fragility ”, Annals of Tourism Research , Vol. 39 No. 3 , pp. 1446 - 69 .

Page , S.J. ( 2013 ), Tourism Management. An Introduction , Routledge , Abingdon .

Pozzi , D. ( 2017 ), “ Start with the future and work back: a heritage management manifesto ”, Business History , Vol. 59 No. 8 , pp. 1310 - 1 .

Ritchie , B.W. , Dorrell , H. , Miller , D. and Miller , G.A. ( 2004 ), “ Crisis communication and recovery for the tourism industry ”, Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing , Vol. 15 Nos 2-3 , pp. 199 - 2016 .

Roc , N. ( 2008 ), “ Haiti-Environment: from the ‘Pearl of the Antilles’ to desolation ”, Fride , pp. 1 - 7 .

Scutariu , A.L. ( 2009 ), Tourism: Economic Growth Factor and Essential Element in Regional Development of Romania , University Press Roma .

Seddighi , H.R. , Nuttall , M.W. and Theocharous , A.L. ( 2001 ), “ Does cultural background of tourists influence the destination choice? An empirical study with special reference to political instability ”, Tourism Management , Vol. 22 , pp. 181 - 91 .

Séraphin , H. ( 2010 ), “ Quel avenir pour le tourisme en Haïti? ”, Revue Espaces , Vol. 281 , pp. 4 - 6 .

Séraphin , H. ( 2012 ), L’enseignement du tourisme en France et au Royaume-Uni , Publibook , Paris .

Séraphin , H. ( 2014a ), Le tourisme: L’ouverture pour le peuple de Toussaint? , Publibook , Paris .

Séraphin , H. ( 2014b ), “ Bonjour blanc a journey through Haiti: an allegory of the tourism industry in Haiti ”, in Quintero , S. and Baleiro , R. (Eds), Lit&Tour, ensaios sobre literature e Turismo , Humus , Ribeirao , pp. 355 - 80 .

Séraphin , H. and Paul , B. ( 2015 ), “ La diaspora: Un levier pour le développement du tourisme en Haiti ”, Mondes du Tourisme , available at: http://tourisme.revues.org/990 (accessed 5 May 2018 ).

Séraphin , H. , Butcher , J. and Konstanje , M. ( 2016 ), “ Challenging the negative images of Haiti at a pre-visit stage using visual online learning materials ”, Journal of Policy Research in Tourism, Leisure and Events , Vol. 9 No. 2 , pp. 169 - 81 .

Séraphin , H. , Gowreesunkar , V. and Ambaye , M. ( 2016 ), “ The blakeley model applied to improving a tourist destination: the case of Haiti ”, Journal of Destination Marketing & Management , Vol. 5 No. 4 , pp. 325 - 332 .

Séraphin , H. , Ambaye , M. , Gowreesunkar , G.B. and Bonnardel , V. ( 2016 ), “ A marketing research tool for destination management organisations ”, Logo Design , Vol. 69 No. 11 , pp. 5022 - 7 .

Seraphin , H. , Smith , S. , Scott , P. and Stoakes , P. ( 2018 ), “ Destination management through organisational ambidexterity: a study of Haitian enclaves ”, Journal of Destination Marketing & Management , Vol. 9 , pp. 389 - 92 .

Tardieu , J. ( 2014 ), Investor et s’investir en Haiti, un acte de foi , Editions CIDIHCA , Port-au-Prince .

Théodat , J.M. ( 2004 ), “ L’endroit et l’envers du décor : La ‘touristicité’ comparée d’Haïti et de la République Dominicaine ”, Revue Tiers Monde , No. 178 , pp. 297 - 317 .

Thomson , I. ( 2004 ), Bonjour blanc, a journey through Haiti , Vintage , London .

Thomson , I. ( 2014 ), Bonjour blanc, a journey through Haiti , Vintage , London .

Towner , J. ( 1995 ), “ What is tourism’s history? ”, Tourism Management , Vol. 16 No. 5 , pp. 339 - 43 .

USAID ( 2015 ), “ Diaspora ”, available at: www.usaid.gov/partnership-opportunities/diaspora-engagement (accessed 22 June 2018 ).

Visser , W. ( 2015 ), Sustainable Frontiers. Unlocking Change through Business, Leadership and Innovation , Greenleaf Publishing , Sheffield .

Yeoman , I. and McMahon-Beatte , U. ( 2016 ), “ The future of food tourism ”, Journal of Tourism Futures , Vol. 2 No. 1 , pp. 95 - 8 .

Youel , R. ( 1998 ), Tourism: An Introduction , Longman , New York, NY .

Further reading

Saint-Louis , F. ( 2000 ), Le vodou haitien. Reflet d’une societe bloquee , L’Harmathan , Paris .

Corresponding author

About the author.

Hugues Seraphin is Senior Lecturer in Event and Tourism Management. He is also Programme Leader for Event Management at The University of Winchester.

Related articles

We’re listening — tell us what you think, something didn’t work….

Report bugs here

All feedback is valuable

Please share your general feedback

Join us on our journey

Platform update page.

Visit emeraldpublishing.com/platformupdate to discover the latest news and updates

Questions & More Information

Answers to the most commonly asked questions here

• International
• Schools directory
• Resources Jobs Schools directory News Search

National Parks Tourism Conflict Matrix

Subject: Geography

Age range: 11-14

Resource type: Worksheet/Activity

Last updated

5 September 2017

• Share through email
• Share through twitter
• Share through linkedin
• Share through facebook
• Share through pinterest

Tes classic free licence

Your rating is required to reflect your happiness.

It's good to leave some feedback.

Something went wrong, please try again later.

Good editable base that we're using to take on our field trip to a national park. Thanks!

Empty reply does not make any sense for the end user

Range of stakeholders and saves time putting a matrix together :)

Report this resource to let us know if it violates our terms and conditions. Our customer service team will review your report and will be in touch.

Not quite what you were looking for? Search by keyword to find the right resource: