different types of transport in tourism

Tourism Transportation

The transport industry has gained a vital place in the global network system and is one of the most important components of the tourism infrastructure. It now becomes easier for people to travel from one place to another because of the various modes of transportation available.

The earliest forms of transportation in the ancient times were animals on land and sails on the sea. Travel development from the need to survive, to expand and develop trade to far off countries, and the hunger to capture new lands and territories. This was followed by the use of steams and electricity in the nineteenth century followed by internal combustion engines.

Aircraft with the jet engines were introduced in the 1950s . With the development of technology, travel became faster and more and people could travel around the globe.

Since tourism involves the movement of people from their places of residence to the places of tourist attractions, every tourist has to travel to reach the places of interest. Transport is, thus, one of the major components of the tourism industry. To develop any place of tourist attraction there have to be proper, efficient, and safe modes of transportation.

Transportation is vital to tourism. Studies have shown that tourists spend almost 30 to 40 percent of their total holiday expenditure on transportation and the remaining on food, accommodation, and other activities. This aspect once again highlights the importance of transportation.

A tourist can travel by a variety of means. The tourism professional, as well as tourist, should be aware of the various modes of transport available to reach the destination and at the destination.

The various mode of transport can be broadly divided into the following three categories :

• Air transport
• Land transport
• Water transport

Air Transport

Due to the growth of air transport in recent years, long-distance travel has become much simpler and affordable. Distance is now measured in hours and not in kilometers. The world has indeed shrunk and becomes a small village.

The development of air transport mostly occurred after World War I and II. Commercial airlines were created for travelers. Because of increasing air traffic, the commercial sector grows rapidly. Before the World War II, Swissair already was carrying around 14-16 passenger between Zurich to London.

The first commercial service was introduced by KLM, the Dutch Airlines, in 1920 between Amsterdam and London. Commercial air travel grew mostly after World War II. More facilities were introduced and there was more comfort in travel.

Jet flights were inaugurated by Great Britain in the year 1952. In the year 1958 Pan American introduced the Boeing 707 services between Paris and New York. Due to the introduction of jet flights, the year 1959 onward saw a tremendous increase in air traffic. The concept of chartered flights was also introduced during this year.

Jumbo jets have revolutionized travel. A large number of people travel by air because of the speed, comfort, and economy in terms of time saved.

The modern era, thus, is the era of mass air travel. After road transport, air travel is the most popular mode of travel, particularly for international travel. For the business travelers, air transport is more convenient as it saves their precious time and offers a luxurious and hassle-free travel. Many airlines nowadays offer special facilities to the business tourist such as Internet on board.

There two types of airlines . These are following as:

Scheduled airlines operate as regular schedules. Chartered airlines or the non-scheduled airlines operate only when there is a demand, mainly during the tourist seasons. The chartered flights work out cheaper than the scheduled carriers as they are operated only when there is a high load factor. Chartered flights provide cheaper packages to the destination such as Portugal and Spain.

India receives more than 400 chartered flights, especially to Goa. Goa has a maximum number of chartered flights coming in during the months of December to January.

The International Air Transport Association (IATA) regulates international air travel. IATA has more than 105 major airlines of the world as its members. IATA regulates the price of tickets on different sectors of travel in the world. The concerned government decides the domestic fares.

The airfares are normally determined on the volume and the air travel demand in an area.

The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) is an intergovernmental organization established in the year 1945. Only the government of the country can become a member. The government has to enter into a bilateral agreement for the frequency of flights for operating commercial airlines between them.

Airlines are classified into two broad categories namely small carrier and large carrier . The small carrier also known as commuter airlines have less than 30 seats . The larger carriers, also known as major airlines fly direct routes between the major cities and seat and seat 100 to 800 passengers .

The recent boom in the aviation technology has certainly bought some new development to airlines industry. There has been a major change in the size of the aircraft.

Every year there are a growing number of new airlines being introduced. Because of the growing number of new private airlines, there is stiff competition among them. This has resulted in a considerable reduction in air fairs and has boosted the growth of air traffic. To woo and attract customers, many airlines offer cheaper promotional fares such as excursion fares, group fares, and apex fares.

Million of tonnes of cargo and mail are also handled by the air transport industry.

Road Transport

Humans travel place to place in search of food in the primitive era. They tamed animals such as the dog, ox, horse, camel, reindeer, elephants, etc. for carrying the load and traveling. After the discovery of the wheel, humans developed the cart, the chariot, and the carriage.

Until the seventeenth century, horses were used for traveling. Later on better roads were constructed and some of these roads developed into trade routes, which linked many countries. One of them is the Silk Route which was used for transporting silk from China to Persia and the Blue Gem road from Iran to Afghanistan and India.

Today, the most popular and widely used mode of road travel is the automobile or the car. Road transport is dominated by the automobile, which provides views of the landscape and the freedom to travel. Tourist often travels with their entire family for holidays.

To promote tourism , the vehicle required are coaches and tourist cars. Tourist coaches or buses are preferred for large tourist groups traveling together on a specified tour itinerary. Many tourists prefer to travel in comfort and privacy and hire cars. Cars of various makes and standards are available on a rental basis.

Tourist also uses their own motorcar when holidaying. Cars and coaches carried long distance by train facility is also available in some countries.

The car rental segment of the tourism industry is in a very advanced stage in foreign countries. The client can book a car, himself or through agents, and make it wait at the desired place at the destination. The client can then drive the car himself /herself on reaching the destination.

Rail Transport

The railway is the most economical, convenient, and popular mode of travel especially for long distance travel all over the world. The railroad was invented in the seventeenth century in Germany with wooden tracks. The first steel rail was developed in the USA during the early 1800s . The railways revolutionized transportation and mass movement of people seen in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.

The broad gauge lines account for more than 55 percent of the total network and carry 85 percent of total traffic. The steam engines have been replaced by diesel and electric engines which have helped in increasing the speed. Railways have promoted tourism by introducing a special tourist train.

In Europe, the railway systems of six European countries have been clubbed to make rail travel easier for the people of Europe. A rail passenger can buy a ticket in any one country of Europe and travel through six countries. For the foreign tourists, Eurail Passes offer unlimited discounts travel in express trains for periods ranging from a week to three months. In the USA, AMTRAK operates trains.

Water Transport

Humans have been traveling through water since time immemorial and carried good and people from one place to another. The boats progressed from the simple raft with some modifications and improvement and were first used around 6000 BC.

Travel by ship was the only means for traveling overseas until the middle of the twentieth century. The Cunard Steamship Company was formed in 1838 with regular steamship services operating on the North Atlantic. During the World War I, in 1914 the operations of the steamship company had to be suspended. After the World War I, the steamship luxury liners were back to business till World War II.

After the World War II, the large luxury liners again started their operations all over the world and carried passengers and holidaymakers. Some of the linear were very large accommodating up to 1000 passengers and had facilities like swimming pools, cinema halls, shops, casino, etc.

The cruise lines are the new attraction among the tourist. The cruises are booked several months in advance for trips into the tropical and sub-tropical waters of the Hawaii, Caribbean, Mediterranean, etc. Water transport today plays two main roles in travel and tourism namely ferrying and cruising .

Modern vessels such as the wave -piercing, the hydrofoil and the hovercraft are the over the water transport and used for short distance routes.

Water transportation is also used in riverboat travel. The Mississippi River has been a popular tourist river since the first settlers came to the USA. Today, tourists enjoy two or three-day luxury trips along the river. In Europe, the Rhine, winding through the grapes growing areas of Germany, offers similar leisure tourist trips.

Motorized ferries and launches are used over rivers to transport tourists and locals, to transport vehicles, and offer facilities such as car parking, restaurants, viewing decks, etc.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Various Modes of Transport

Tourist has a wide variety of transport options available today. There are several advantages and disadvantages of all the model of transport. These are following as:

Direct root, high speed, quick service, social and political significance, luxurious travel are the advantages of air transportation.

High cost, jet lag, unsuitable for heavy bulk cargo, accidents always fatal, international rule to be observed are the disadvantages of air transportation.

Flexibility, reliable, door to door service, economical, supplements other modes of transport, quick transit for short distances are the advantages of road transport.

Slow speed, carrying capacity limited, accidents, none- AC coaches not so comfortable, comfort depends upon the conditions of roads are the disadvantages of road transport.

Long distance travel cheaper, carrying capacity large, dependable service, quicker than road transportation, ability to view scenery en route is the advantage of railways.

Inflexible, unfit to hilly regions, difficulties in rural areas, dining car facilities not always available are the disadvantage of railways.

Economical, carrying capacity enormously, develops international and coastal trades are the advantages of water transport.

Transportation As An Attraction

To attract customers as well as take them around an attraction, destination developers have used many forms of transport to move people around. These novel modes of transport ensure that major exhibits are viewed in a certain sequence and ensure that the crowd moves through at a reliable pace.

Overcrowding should be avoided at all costs to prevent untoward incidents and to maintain the beauty of the place. Tourist can cover the entire park in a shorter duration with the help of these modes of transport.

Transportation is the most crucial component of the tourism infrastructure. It is required not only for reaching the destination but also visiting the site and moving about at the destination. Variety in modes of transportation adds color to the overall tourism experience.

Unusual forms of transportation are also an attraction such as the cable cars in hilly terrain, the funicular railway, or jet boating. The choice of mode of transport is vast and tourists can choose a mode to suit their budget. They can opt for scheduled or non-scheduled transport such as the hiring of vehicles, boats, coaches or trains so that they can travel with their group.

The Geography of Transport Systems

The spatial organization of transportation and mobility

B.7 – Tourism and Transport

Author: dr. jean-paul rodrigue.

Tourism, as an economic activity, relies on transportation to bring tourists to destinations, and transportation can be part of the touristic experience.

1. The Emergence of the Tourism Industry

Since the 1970s where tourism became increasingly affordable, the number of international tourists has more than doubled . The expansion of international tourism has a large impact on the discipline of transport geography since it links traffic generation, interactions at different scales (from the local to the global), and the related transportation modes and terminals. As of 2016, 1.2 billion international tourist receipts were accounted for, representing more than 10% of the global population. The industry is also a large employer accounting for 10% of all the global employment; 30 tourist visits are usually associated with one job. 30% of the global trade of services is accounted for by tourism. Tourism dominantly takes place in Europe and North America , but geographical diversification is taking place.

Traveling has always been an important feature, but its function has substantially evolved. Historically, travelers were explorers and merchants looking to learn about regions, potential markets and to find goods and resources. The risks and exoticism associated also attracted the elite that could afford the large expenses and the time required to travel to other remote destinations. Many wrote realistic and even imaginary travel accounts. As time moved on and as transportation became more reliable, traveling became a more mundane activity taking place in an organized environment; tourism. In the modern world, traveling is more centered around annual holidays and can be reasonably well predicted.

As an economic activity, tourism is characterized by a high demand level of elasticity. As transport costs are significant for international transportation, cost fluctuations strongly influence demand. Therefore, transport is a key element in the tourism industry. The demand in international and even national transport infrastructures implies a large number of people to be transported in an efficient, fast, and inexpensive manner. It requires heavy investments and complex organization. Well-organized terminals and planned schedules are essential in promoting adequate transportation facilities for tourists, notably since the industry is growing at a fast rate.

Transport is the cause and the effect of the growth of tourism. First, the improved facilities have incited tourism , and the expansion of tourism has prompted the development of transport infrastructure. Accessibility is the main function behind the basics of tourism transport. In order to access sought-after destinations, tourists have a range of transportation modes that are often used in a sequence. Air transport is the primary mode for international tourism, which usually entails travel over long distances. Growth rates of international air traffic are pegged to growth rates of international tourism.

Transport policies and national regulations can influence destinations available to tourists. One dimension concerns the openness to tourism through travel visa restrictions , which vary substantially depending on the countries of origin of tourists. Unsurprisingly, travelers from developed countries, particularly Europe, face the least restrictions, while travelers from developing countries face a much more stringent array of restrictions. Another dimension concerns the provision of infrastructure. If the public sector does not cope with the demand in terms of transport infrastructures, the tourist industry might be impaired in its development. However, land transport networks in various countries are designed to meet the needs of commercial movements that tourism requires.

Tourism usually contributes enough to the local economy that governments are more than willing to improve road networks or airport facilities, especially in locations with limited economic opportunities other than tourism. There are, however, significant differences in the amount of spending per type of mode, namely between cruise and air transport tourism. Cruise shipping tourism provides much less revenue than a tourist brought by air travel. A significant reason is that cruise lines are capturing as much tourism expenses within their ships as possible (food, beverages, entertainment, shopping) and have short port calls, often less than a day. Tourists arriving by air transport usually stay several days at the same location and use local amenities.

2. Means and Modes

Tourism uses all the standard transportation modes since travelers rely on existing passenger transport systems, from local transit systems to global air transportation.

• Car traveling is usually an independent transport conveyance where the traveler decides the route and the length of the trip. It is usually cheaper since road fees are not directly paid and provided as a public. It is the only transportation mode that does not require transfers, in the sense that the whole journey, from door to door can be achieved. Along major highway corridors, service activities such as restaurants, gas stations, and hotels have agglomerated to service the traffic, many of which touristic. Car transport is the dominant mode in world tourism (77% of all journeys), notably because of advantages such as flexibility, price, and independence. Tourists will often rent cars to journey within their destinations, which has triggered an active clustering of car rental companies adjacent to main transport terminals (airports, train stations) and touristic venues.
• Coach traveling uses the same road network as cars. Coaches are well suited for local mass tourism but can be perceived as a nuisance if in too large numbers since they require a large amount of parking space. They can be used for short duration local tours (hours) but also can be set for multi-days journeys where the coach is the conveyance moving tourists from one resort to another.
• Rail travel was the dominant form of passenger transport before the age of the automobile. The railway network usually reflects more the commercial needs of the national economy then holiday tourist flows which can make it a less preferred choice as a traveling mode. The railway systems of several countries, notably in Europe, have seen massive investments for long-distance routes and high-speed services. Due to the scenery or the amenities provided, rail transportation can also be a tourist destination in itself. Several short rail lines that no longer had commercial potential have been converted for tourism.
• Air transport is by far the most effective transport mode. Notably because of prices, only 12.5% of the tourists travel by plane, but for international travel, this share is around 40%. Air transport has revolutionized the geographical aspect of distances; the most remote areas can now be reached any journey around the world can be measured in terms of hours of traveling. Business travelers are among the biggest users of airline facilities, but low-cost air carriers have attracted a significant market segment mainly used for tourism.
• Cruises are mainly providing short sea journeys of about a week. Cruising has become a significant tourist industry. Cruise ships act as floating resorts where guests can enjoy amenities and entertainment while being transported along a chain of port calls. The international market for cruising was about 22.2 million tourists in 2015, which involves an annual growth rate above 7% since 1990. The main cruise markets are the Caribbean and the Mediterranean, with Alaska and Northern Europe fjords also popular during the summer season. This industry is characterized by a high level of market concentration with a few companies, such as Carnival Corporation and Royal Caribbean Cruises who account for about 70% of the market. The impacts of cruising on the local economy are mitigated as the strategy of cruising companies is to retain as much income as possible. This implies that tourists spend most of their money on the cruise ship itself (gift shops, entertainment, casinos, bars, etc.) or on-island facilities owned by cruise shipping companies.

3. Mass Tourism and Mass Transportation

Tourism transport can be divided into two categories:

• Independent means of travel ; controlled by individual tourists who book them on their own. This mainly involves the private automobile, but also mass conveyances that are booked to travel on an individual basis such as regularly scheduled flights, rail connections, ferries, and even cruises.
• Mass travel ; where tourists travel in organized groups. The most common form involves chartered buses and flights used for this single purpose.

When tourism was mainly for the elite, independent means of travel prevailed. However, the emergence of mass tourism and the significant revenue it provides for local economies required the setting of mass transportation systems and specialized firms such as travel agencies organizing travel on behalf of their customers. These firms were able to take advantage of their pricing power being able to negotiate large volumes of passengers for carriers and hotels. Some were even able to become air carriers, such as Thomas Cook Airlines and Air Transat, which are major charterers in their respective markets. Paradoxically, the growth of online travel booking services has favored the re-emergence of independent means of travel since an individual is able to book complex travel services, including transport and hotel accommodations. Thus, the segmentation of the travel industry is linked with the segmentation of the supporting transport systems.

The seasonality of tourism has an important impact on the use and allocation of transportation assets.

• Air transport has a notable seasonality where tourism results in variations in demand, summer being the peak season. Because of this seasonality and the high cost of acquiring additional assets to accommodate peak demand, the airline industry has pricing power during peak touristic demand. This also leads the seasonal charter services to pick up the potential unmet demand. During the winter, charterers focus on subtropical destinations (e.g. Caribbean, Mexico), while during the summer there is more a focus on the European market.
• Cruises also have a seasonality where many cruise lines are repositionning their assets according to variations in the destination preferences. During winter months, the Caribbean is an important destination market, while during the summer, destinations like the Mediterranean, Alaska, and Norway are more prevalent.

4. Covid-19 and its Impacts

Related topics.

• Air Transport
• Airport Terminals
• Transportation and Economic Development
• The Cruise Industry

Bibliography

• Graham, A. and F. Dobruszkes (eds) (2019) Air Transport – A Tourism Perspective, Amsterdam: Elsevier.
• World Economic Forum (2017) The travel & tourism competitiveness report 2017, World Economic Forum.

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Tourism in the Mediterranean Sea

ISBN : 978-1-80043-901-6 , eISBN : 978-1-80043-900-9

Publication date: 1 March 2021

Tourism sector is one of the main important sectors of the world economy. There are very close, complex and complementary relationships between transport and tourism, in both positive and negative ways. An increase in traffic due to world tourism growth can have adverse effects in terms of congestion, safety and security problems, pollution, etc. But transport is a key element in the tourism industry, facilitating and constraining the development of tourism. In other words, transport is the cause and the effect of the growth of tourism at the same time. There is a close connection between mobility and transport. Mobility is commonly defined as the quality of moving freely. At European level, the right of freedom of movement is ensured by the combined provisions of Articles 45 of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union (CFR) and Article 3(3) TEU. According to a social approach, the right of movement must be ensured on Community territory within the framework of economic, social and territorial cohesion. Air transport has been transformed from a niche phenomenon to a mass phenomenon thanks to improved mobility, cheap prices of tourists packages and the low-cost airlines, as a result of the liberalization of this sector.

• Transport-tourism-mobility
• Sustainable development
• Low-cost phenomenon
• Tourist packages
• Cruise contract

Pellegrino, F. (2021), "Transport and Tourism Relationship", Grasso, F. and Sergi, B.S. (Ed.) Tourism in the Mediterranean Sea , Emerald Publishing Limited, Leeds, pp. 241-256. https://doi.org/10.1108/978-1-80043-900-920211017

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Chapter 2. Transportation

Morgan Westcott

Learning Objectives

• Understand the role of transportation in the tourism industry
• Recognize milestones in the development of the air industry and explain how profitability is measured in this sector
• Report on the historic importance of rail travel and challenges to rail operations today
• Describe water-based transportation segments including cruise travel and passenger ferries
• Recognize the importance of transportation infrastructure in tourism destinations
• Specify elements of sightseeing transportation, and explain current issues regarding rental vehicles and taxis
• Identify and relate industry trends and issues including fuel costs, environmental impacts, and changing weather

The transportation sector is vital to the success of our industry. Put simply, if we can’t move people from place to place — whether by air, sea, or land — we don’t have an industry. This chapter takes a broad approach, covering each segment of the transportation sector globally, nationally, and at home in British Columbia.

Let’s start our review by taking a look at the airline industry.

According to the International Air Transport Association (IATA), in 2014, airlines transported 3.3 billion people across a network of almost 50,000 routes generating 58 million jobs and $2.4 trillion in business activity (International Air Transport Association, 2014a).

Spotlight On: International Air Transport Association

The International Air Transport Association (IATA) is the trade association for the world’s airlines, representing around 240 airlines or 84% of total air traffic. It supports many areas of aviation activity and helps formulate industry policy on critical aviation issues (IATA, 2014b). For more information, visit the  International Air Transport Association website : http://www.iata.org

The first commercial (paid) passenger flight took place in Florida on New Year’s Day 1914 as a single person was transported across Tampa Bay (IATA 2014a). There have been a number of international aviation milestones since that flight, as illustrated in Table 2.1.

Rules and Regulations

Aviation is a highly regulated industry as it crosses many government jurisdictions. This section explores key airline regulations in more detail.

The term open skies refers to policies that allow national airlines to fly to, and above, other countries. These policies lift restrictions where countries have good relationships, freeing up the travel of passengers and goods.

Take a Closer Look: The 1944 Chicago Convention on International Civil Aviation

This document contains the original statements from the convention that created the airline industry as we know it, providing a preamble statement as well as detailed articles pertaining to a range of issues from cabotage to pilotless aircraft. Read the 1944 Chicago Convention on International Civil Aviation [PDF] : www.icao.int/publications/Documents/7300_orig.pdf

Canada’s approach to open skies is the Blue Sky Policy , first implemented in 2006. The National Airlines Council of Canada (NACC) and Canadian Airports Council (CAC) support the Blue Sky Policy.

While opening up a ir transport agreements (ATAs) with other jurisdictions is important, the Canadian government doesn’t provide blanket arrangements, instead negotiating “when it is in Canada’s overall interest to do so” (Government of Canada, 2014a). Some su ggest the government should be more liberal with air access so more competitors can enter the market, potentially attracting more visitors to the country (Gill and Raynor, 2003).

Taxes and Fees

According to a 2012 Senate study on issues related to the Canadian airline industry, Canadian travellers are being grounded by airline fees, fuel surcharges, security taxes, airport improvement fees, and other additional costs. Airports are charged rental fees by the Canadian government ($4.8 billion from 1992 to 2004), which they pass on to the airlines, who in turn transfer the costs to travellers. Some think eliminating rental fees would make Canadian airports more competitive, and view rental and other fees as the reason 5 million Canadians went south of the border for flights in 2013, where passenger fees are 230% lower than in Canada (Hermiston and Steele, 2014).

Profitability

Running an airline is like having a baby: fun to conceive, but hell to deliver. – C. E. Woolman, principal founder of Delta Air Lines ( The Economist , 2011).

As the quote above suggests, airlines are faced with many challenges. In addition to operating in a strict regulatory environment, airlines yield extremely small profit margins. In 2013 the industry accumulated $10.6 billion worldwide in revenues, although global profit margins were just 1.5% (IATA, 2014a). To put that into perspective, while the average airline earned 1.5%, Apple’s profit margins were almost 14 times that at 20.15% (YCharts, 2014).

Passenger Load Factor

Key to airline profitability is passenger load factor , which relates how efficiently planes are being used. Load factor for a single flight can be determined by dividing the number of passengers by the number of seats.

Passenger load factors in the airline industry reached a record high in 2013, at just under 80%, which was attributed to increased volumes and strong capacity management in key sectors (IATA, 2104a). One way of increasing capacity is by using larger aircraft. For instance, the introduction of the Airbus A380 model has allowed up to 40% more capacity per flight, carrying up to  525 passengers in a three-class configuration, and up to 853 in a single-class configuration (Airbus, 2014). 

Low-Cost Carriers

Another key factor in profitability is the airline’s business model. In 1971, Southwest Airlines became the first low-cost carrier (LCC), revolutionizing the industry. The LCC model involved charging for all extras such as reserved seating, baggage, and on-board service, and cutting costs by offering less legroom and using non-unionized workforces. Typically, an LCC has to run with  90% full planes to break even (Owram, 2014). The high-volume, lower-service system is what we have become used to today, but at the time it was introduced, it was groundbreaking.

Ancillary Revenues

The LCC model, combined with tight margins, led to today’s climate where passengers are charged for value-added services such as meals, headsets, blankets, seat selection, and bag checking. These are known in the industry as ancillary revenues . Profits from these extras rose from $36 billion in 2012 to $42 billion in 2013, or more than $13 a passenger. An average net profit of only $3.39 per passenger was retained by airlines (IATA, 2014a).

As you can see, airlines must strive to maintain profitability, despite thin margins, in an environment with heavy government regulation. But at the same time, they must be responsible for the safety of their passengers.

Air Safety and Security

IATA encourages airlines to view safety from a number of points, including reducing operational risks such as plane crashes, by running safety audit programs. They also advocate for improved infrastructure such as runway upgrades and training for pilots and other crew. Finally, they strive to understand emerging safety issues, including the outsourcing of operations to third-party companies (IATA, 2014a).

In terms of security, coordination between programs such as the Interpol Stolen and Lost Travel Documents initiative and other databases is critical (IATA, 2014a). As reservations and management systems become increasingly computerized, cyber-security becomes a top concern for airlines, who must protect IT (information technology) because their databases contain information about flights and passengers’ personal information. Unruly passengers are also a cause of concern, with over 8,000 incidents reported worldwide every year (IATA, 2014a).

Now that we have a better sense of the complexities of the industry, let’s take a closer look at air travel in Canada and the regional air industry.

Canada’s Air Industry

In 1937, Trans-Canada Air Lines (later to become Air Canada) was launched with two passenger planes and one mail plane. By the 1950s,   Canadian Pacific Airlines (CP Air) entered the marketplace, and an economic boom led to more affordable tickets. Around this time CP Air (which became Canadian Airlines in 1987) launched flights to Australia, Japan, and South America (Canadian Geographic, 2000). In 2001, Canadian Airlines International was acquired by Air Canada (Aviation Safety Network, 2012).

In 1996, the marketplace changed drastically with the entry of an Alberta-based LCC called WestJet.  By 2014, WestJet had grown to become Canada’s second major airline with more than 9,700 staff flying to 88 destinations across domestic and international networks (WestJet, 2014).

As it grew, WestJet began to offer services such as premium economy class and a frequent-flyer program, launched a regional carrier, and introduced transatlantic flights with service to Dublin, Ireland, evolving away from the LCC model (Owram, 2014). With those changes, and in the absence of  a true low-cost carrier, in 2014, some other companies, such as Canada Jetlines and JetNaked, sought to raise upward of $50 million to bring their airlines to market.

However, outside of Air Canada and WestJet, airlines in Canada have found it very challenging to survive, and some examples of LCC startups like Harmony Airways and Jetsgo have fallen by the wayside.

Challenges to Canada’s Air Industry

When looking at these failed airlines in Canada, three key challenges to success can be identified (Owram, 2014):

• Canada’s large geographical size and sparse population mean relatively low demand for flights.
• Canada’s higher taxes and fees compared with other jurisdictions (such as the United States) make pricing less competitive.
• Canada’s two dominant airlines are able to price new entrants out of the market.

In addition to these factors, the European debt crisis, a slow US economic recovery, more cautious spending by Canadians, and fuel price increases led to a $900 million industry loss in 2011 (Conference Board of Canada, 2012) prior to the industry returning to profitability in 2013.

Take a Closer Look: One Size Doesn’t Fit All

In 2013, a special report to the Canadian Senate explored the concept that one size doesn’t fit all when it comes to competitiveness in the country’s airline industry. The report contains general observations about the industry as well as a number of recommendations to stakeholders, including airport managers. Read the report: “One Size Doesn’t Fit All: the Future Growth and Competitiveness of Canadian Air Travel” [PDF] : www.parl.gc.ca/Content/SEN/Committee/411/trcm/rep/rep08apr13-e.pdf

Today, the Canadian airline industry directly employs roughly 141,000 people and is worth $34.9 billion in gross domestic product. It supports 330 jobs for every 100,000 passengers and contributes over $12 billion to federal and provincial treasuries, including over $7 billion in taxes (Gill and Raynor, 2013).

Let’s now turn our attention to the regional air market, focusing on British Columbia.

Regional Airlines

Transportation in BC has always been difficult: incomplete road systems and rugged terrain historically made travel between communities almost impossible. In 1927, a number of businessmen promised to change all that when they opened British Columbia Airways in Victoria with the purchase of a commercial airliner (Canadian Museum of Flight, 2014).

As commercial flying became more popular, and the province grew, regional airports started to spring up around BC as a means of delivering surveying equipment, forestry supplies, and workers. Many of these airports were legacies of Canada’s strategic position for the military. Fort Nelson’s airport, for instance, was established so the US Air Force could fuel aircraft bound for Russia in World War II (Northern Rockies Regional Airport, 2014).

In 1994, Transport Canada transferred all 150 airports under its control to local authorities under the National Airports Policy (NAP). This policy is considered to have been a turning point in the privatization of the airline industry in Canada. A 2004 study showed that after 10 years, 48% of these airports were not able to cover annual costs of operation, leading to concerns about the viability of small local airports in particular (InterVISTAS, 2005).

In 2012, the BC government released its aviation strategy, entitled Connecting with the World , which acknowledged the economic challenges for airports large and small. These range from Vancouver International Airport (YVR), which supports more than 61,000 jobs and creates more than $11 billion in economic activity each year, through to regional and local airports. The strategy outlined a framework to remove barriers to aviation growth including potentially eliminating the two-cent-per-litre International Aviation Fuel Tax ( British Columbia Ministry of Transportation and Infrastructure , 2012).

Given a highly complex regulatory environment, razor-thin profit margins, and intense competition, the airline industry is constantly changing and evolving at global, national, and regional levels. But one thing is certain: air travel is here to stay.

On the other hand, the rail industry has been faced with significant declines since air travel became accessible to the masses. Let’s learn more about this sector.

In Chapter 1, we looked at the historic significance of railways as they laid the foundation for the modern tourism industry. That’s because in many places, including Canada and British Columbia, trains were an unprecedented way to move people across vast expanses of land. With the Canadian Pacific company opening up hotels in major cities, BC’s hospitality sector was born and a golden age of rail travel emerged.

However, starting in the 1940s and 1950s, the passenger rail industry began to decline sharply. In 1945, Canadian railways carried 55.4 million passengers, but just 10 years later passenger traffic had dropped to 27.2 million. The creation of VIA Rail in 1977 as a Canadian Crown corporation was an attempt by the government to ensure rail travel did not disappear, but in the years since its founding VIA has struggled, relying heavily on federal subsidies in order to continue operations.

Between 1989 and 1990, VIA lost over 45% of its ridership when it cut unprofitable routes, focusing on areas with better potential for revenue and passenger volumes. From there, annual ridership has stabilized at around 3.5 million to 4.0 million passengers per year, slowly increasing throughout the 1990s and 2000s (Dupuis, 2011).

Despite this slight recovery, there are a number of challenges for passenger rail in Canada, which will likely require continued government support to survive. Three key challenges to a successful passenger rail industry are:

• Passenger rail must negotiate with freight for right-of-use of tracks.
• There is limited potential of routes (with the highest volume existing in the Quebec-Windsor corridor).
• Fixed-cost equipment is aging out, requiring replacement or upgrading.

High-speed rail seems like an attractive option, but would be expensive to construct as existing tracks aren’t suitable for the reasons given above. It’s also unlikely to provide high enough returns to private investors (Dupuis, 2011). This means the Canadian government would have to invest heavily in a rapid rail project for it to proceed. As of 2014, no such investment was planned.

Spotlight On: Rocky Mountaineer Rail Tours

Founded in 1990, Rocky Mountaineer offers three train journeys through BC and Alberta to Banff, Lake Louise, Jasper, and Calgary, and one train excursion from Vancouver to Whistler. In 2013, Rocky Mountaineer introduced Coastal Passage, a new route connecting Seattle to the Canadian Rockies that can be added to any two-day or more rail journey (Rocky Mountaineer, 2014). For more information, please visit the Rocky Mountaineer website : http://www.rockymountaineer.com

While the industry overall has been in a decline, touring companies like Rocky Mountaineer have found a financially successful model by shifting the focus from transportation to the sightseeing experience. The company has weathered financial storms by refusing to discount their luxury product, instead focusing on the unique experiences. The long planning cycle for scenic rail packages has helped the company stand their ground in terms of pricing (Cubbon, 2010).

Rail Safety

In Canada, rail safety is governed by the Railway Safety Act , which ensures safe railway operation and amends other laws that relate to rail safety (Government of Canada, 2014b). The Act is overseen by the Minister of Transport. It covers grade crossings, mining and construction near railways, operating certifications, financial penalties for infractions, and safety management.

The Act was revised in late 2014 in response to the massive rail accident in July 2013 in Lac-Mégantic, Quebec. A runaway oil train exploded, killing 47 people, and subsequently MM&A Railway and three employees, including the train’s engineer, were charged with criminal negligence (CBC News, 2014).

In addition to freight management issues, a key rail safety concern is that of crossings. As recently as April 2014, Transport Canada had to issue orders for improved safety measures at crossings in suburban Ottawa after a signal malfunctioned in the area (CTV News, 2014a). According to Operation Lifesaver Canada (2014), in 2011, there were 169 crossing collisions across Canada, with 25 fatalities and 21 serious injuries. In general, however, Canada’s 73,000 kilometres of railway tracks safely transport both people and goods. And while railways in Canada, and elsewhere, are being forced to innovate, companies like Rocky Mountaineer (see Spotlight On above) give the industry glimmers of hope.

The rail industry shares some common history with the cruise sector. Let’s now turn our focus to the water and learn about the evolution of travel on the high seas.

Travel by water is as old as civilization itself. However, the industry as we know it began when Thomas Newcomen invented the steam engine in 1712. The first crossing of the Atlantic by steam engine took place in 1819 aboard the SS Savannah , landing in Liverpool, England, after 29 days at sea. Forty years later, White Star Lines began building ocean liners including the  Olympic -class ships (the Olympic, Britannic , and Titanic ), expanding on previously utilitarian models by adding luxurious amenities (Briggs, 2008).

A boom in passenger ship travel toward the end of the 1800s was aided by a growing influx of immigrants from Europe to America, while more affluent passengers travelled by steamship for pleasure or business. The industry grew over time but, like rail travel, began to decline after the arrival of airlines. Shipping companies were forced to change their business model from pure transportation to “an experience,” and the modern cruise industry was born.

The Cruise Sector

We’ve come a long way since the Olympic class of steamship. Today, the  world’s largest cruise ship, MS  Oasis of the Seas , has an outdoor park with 12,000 plants, an 82-foot zip wire, and a high-diving performance venue. It’s 20 storeys tall and can hold 5,400 passengers and a crew of up to 2,394 (Magrath, 2014).  A crew on a cruise ship will include the captain, the chief officer (in charge of training and maintenance), staff captain, chief engineer, chief medical officer, and chief radio officer (communication, radar, and weather monitoring).

Spotlight On: Cruise Lines International Association

Cruise Lines International Association (CLIA) is the world’s largest cruise industry trade association with representation in North and South America, Europe, Asia, and Australasia. CLIA represents the interests of cruise lines and travel agents in the development of policy. CLIA is also engaged in travel agent training, research, and marketing communications (CLIA, 2014). For more information on CLIA, the cruise industry, and member cruise lines and travel agencies, visit the Cruise Lines International Association website : www.cruising.org

Cruising the World

According to CLIA, 21.7 million passengers were expected to travel worldwide on 63 member lines in 2014. Given increased demand, 24 new ships were expected in 2014-15, adding a total capacity of over 37,000 passengers.

Over 55% of the world’s cruise passengers are from North America, and the leading destinations (based on ship deployments), according to CLIA, are:

• The Caribbean (37%)
• The Mediterranean (19%)
• Northern Europe (11%)
• Australia/New Zealand (6%)
• Alaska (5%)
• South America (3%)

River Cruising

While mass cruises to destinations like the Caribbean remain incredibly popular, river cruises are emerging as another strong segment of the industry. The key differences between river cruises and ocean cruises are (Hill, 2013):

• River cruise ships are smaller (400 feet long by 40 feet wide on average) and can navigate narrow passages.
• River cruises carry fewer passengers (about 10% of the average cruise, or 200 passengers total).
• Beer, wine, and high-end cuisine are generally offered in the standard package.

The price point for river cruises is around the same as ocean trips, with the typical cost ranging from $2,000 to $4,000, depending on the itinerary, accommodations, and other amenities.

From 2008 to 2013, river cruises saw a 10% annual passenger increase. Europe leads the subcategory, while emerging destinations include a cruise route along China’s Yangtze River. As the on-board experience differs greatly from a larger cruise (no play areas, water parks, or on-board stage productions), the target demographic for river cruises is 50- to 70-year-olds. According to Torstein Hagen, founder and chairman of Viking, an international river cruising company, “with river cruises, a destination is the destination,” although many river cruises are themed around cultural or historical events (Hill, 2013).

Cruising in Canada

According to a study completed for the North West & Canada Cruise Association (NWCCA) and its partners, in 2012, approximately 1,100 cruise ship calls were made at Canadian cruise ports generating slightly more than 2 million passenger arrivals throughout the six-month cruise season (BREA, 2013). The study found three key cruise itineraries in Canada:

• Canada/New England
• Quebec (between Montreal and Quebec City and US ports)
• Alaska (either departing from, or using, Vancouver or another BC city as a port of call)

These generated $1.16 billion in direct spending. Cruising also generated almost 10,000 full- and part-time jobs paying $397 million in wages and salaries. The international cruise industry also generated an estimated $269 million in indirect business and income taxes in Canada, and the majority of this spending was in British Columbia (BREA, 2013).

Cruising BC

BC’s rail history and cruise history are intertwined. As early as 1887, Canadian Pacific Railway began offering steamship passage to destinations such as Hawaii, Shanghai, Alaska, and Seattle. Ninety-nine years later, Vancouver’s Canada Place was built, with its cruise ship terminals, allowing the province to attract large ships and capture its share of the growing international cruise industry (Cruise BC, 2014).

Spotlight On: Cruise BC

Cruise BC is a partnership between BC port destinations designed to provide a vehicle for cooperative marketing and development of BC’s cruise sector. Their vision is that the West Coast and British Columbia’s coastal communities are recognized and sought out globally by cruise lines and passengers as a destination of choice. For more information, visit the Cruise BC website : http://www.cruisebc.ca

This potential continues to grow as Nanaimo, Prince Rupert, Victoria, and Vancouver accounted for 57% of the Canadian cruise passenger traffic with 1.18 million passengers in 2012 (BREA, 2013).

Cruising isn’t the only way for visitors to experience the waters of BC. In fact, the vast majority of our water travel is done by ferry. Let’s take a closer look at this vital component of BC’s transportation infrastructure.

Ferry service in British Columbia dates back to the mid-1800s when the Hudson’s Bay Company ran ships between Vancouver Island and the Mainland. Later, CP Rail and Black Ball ferries ran a private service, until 1958 when Premier W.A.C. Bennett announced the BC Ferry Authority would consolidate the ferries under a provincial mandate.

The MV Tsawwassen and the MV Sidney began regular service on June 15, 1960, and BC Ferries was officially launched with two terminals and around 200 employees. Today, there are 35 vessels, 47 destinations, and up to 4,700 employees in the summer peak season (BC Ferries, 2014).

BC isn’t the only destination where ferries make up part of the transportation experience. In 2011, Travel + Leisure Magazine profiled several notable ferry journeys in the article, “World’s Most Beautiful Ferry Rides” including:

• An 800-mile ferry voyage through Chile’s Patagonian fjords
• A three-mile trip from the Egyptian Spice Market to Istanbul, Turkey
• Urban ferry rides including Hong Kong’s Victoria Harbour, Australia’s Sydney Harbour, and New York City’s Staten Island Ferry

The article also featured the 15-hour trip from Port Hardy to Prince Rupert on British Columbia’s coast (Orcutt, 2011).

While cruising is often a pleasant and relaxing experience, there are a number of safety concerns for vessels of all types.

Cruise and Ferry Safety

One of the major concerns on cruise lines is disease outbreak, specifically the norovirus (a stomach flu), which can spread quickly on cruise ships as passengers are so close together. The US Centers for Disease Control (CDC) vessel sanitation program (http://www.cdc.gov/nceh/vsp/default.htm) is designed to help the industry prevent and control the outset, and spreading, of these types of illnesses (Briggs, 2008).

Accidents are also a concern. In 2006, the BC Ferries vessel MV Queen of the North crashed and sank in the Inside Passage, leaving two passengers missing and presumed dead. The ship’s navigating officer was charged with criminal negligence causing their deaths (Keller, 2013). More recently, a “hard landing” at Duke Point terminal on Vancouver Island caused over $4 million in damage. BC Ferries launched a suit against a German engineering firm in late 2013, alleging a piece of equipment failed, making a smooth docking impossible. The Transportation Safety Board found that staff aboard the ship didn’t follow proper docking procedures, however, which contributed to the crash (Canadian Press, 2013).

Spotlight On: The Transportation Safety Board  

The Transportation Safety Board (TSB) investigates marine, pipeline, rail, and air incidents. It is an independent agency that reviews an average of 3,200 events every year. It does not determine liability; however, coroners and medical examiners may use TSB findings in their investigations. The head office in Quebec manages 220 staff across the country. For more information, visit the Transportation Safety Board website : http://www.bst-tsb.gc.ca/eng/index.asp

We’ve covered the skies, the rails, and the seas. Now let’s round out our investigation of transportation in tourism by delving into travel on land.

While much of this text has placed significance on the emergence of the railways as critical to the development of our industry, BC’s roadways have also played an integral role. Our roads have evolved from First Nations trails, to Fur Trade and Gold Rush routes, to Wagon Roads and Trunk Roads — finally becoming the highway system we know today ( British Columbia Ministry of Transportation and Highways , n.d.).

Take a Closer Look: Frontier to Freeway: A Short Illustrated History of the Roads in British Columbia

This short book, available as a PDF, provides an overview of the integral importance of BC’s evolving roadways in our transportation sector. Read this book: Frontier to Freeway: A Short Illustrated History of the Roads in British Columbia [PDF] : http://www.th.gov.bc.ca/publications/frontiertofreeway/frontiertofreeway.pdf

Today, land-based travel is achieved through a complex web of local transit, taxis, rentals, walking, and short-term sightseeing. This section briefly explores these options.

Scenic and Sightseeing Travel

It’s common for visitors to want to explore a community and appreciate the sights. We’ve already learned a little about the rail-based sightseeing company, Rocky Mountaineer. Many destinations also offer short-term, hop-on-hop-off bus and trolley tours. Others feature trams and trolleys. Outside of impromptu excursions, sightseeing tours are often put together by inbound tour operators. You can learn more about tour operators, and the sightseeing sector, in Chapter 7.

Transit and Destination Infrastructure

Vancouver’s Tourism Master Plan acknowledges the importance of transportation infrastructure to the tourism industry. Priorities for future development by the city include (Tourism Vancouver, 2013):

• Improving accessibility for people with disabilities
• Creating a transit loop between downtown attractions
• Supporting ferries in False Creek
• Providing late-night transit
• Investigating and implementing a public bike share
• Developing more transit options along the Broadway corridor
• Working with taxi companies to explore a strategic plan for taxi operations
• Enhancing walkability by implementing recommendations from the Pedestrian Safety Study and Action Plan

These action items were developed in consultation with industry stakeholders as well as residents, and reflect the interrelated elements that make up a destination’s transportation infrastructure.

Rentals and Taxis

Today, when travellers aren’t using their own cars, automobile travel is traditionally split between rental vehicles and taxis (including limousines).

In North America, there are three main brands that represent approximately 85% of the rental car business: Enterprise (includes National and Alamo), Hertz (includes Dollar and Thrifty), and Avis. One of the reasons that brands have consolidated over time is the high fixed cost of operation as vehicles are purchased, maintained, and disposed of. Fierce competition means prices are checked and updated thousands of times a day. The business is also highly seasonal, with high traffic in summer and spring, and so fleet management is critical for profitability. Rental companies tend to use enplanements (the numbers of passengers travelling by air), as a measurement of market trends that influence rental usage (DBRS, 2010).

In BC, taxi licences are issued by the BC Passenger Transportation Board. In Vancouver, the right to operate a taxi is based on a permit system, and each permit costs the original holder $100. But because of the limited number of permits available, those who hold one are able to auction it off for over $800,000 and keep the profit. As a result, passengers in Vancouver paid an average of 73% more for the equivalent trip in Washington, D.C. Drivers from  areas outside the city depositing passengers in Vancouver are also not permitted to pick up fares on the return trip, having to drive across their boundaries (Proctor, 2014).

Ridesharing apps  like Uber, which allow people to find a ride using their mobile phone, have emerged to exert influence on car travel in key destinations. In San Francisco, these apps have rapidly undercut the taxi industry: according to the city’s transit authority, per month, trips by taxi have plummeted from 1,424 in 2012 to 504 in 2014, even though taxi operators maintain a monopoly over rides from the airport (Kuittinen, 2014). In New York City, however, the price of medallions (similar to Vancouver’s taxi permits) continues to hover above $950,000. In large markets like Manhattan, passengers continue to hail cabs on the street in the moment, with e-hails (electronic taxi hails) at 0.17% of the market (Brustein & Winter, 2014). The City of Vancouver opted to force Uber to roll back after its initial release, and in 2014 placed the app on a six-month moratorium after pressure from taxi operators who cited threats to the values of their licences as well as safety and monitoring concerns (CTV News, 2014b).

As this and other examples illustrate, the transportation sector is vulnerable to regulatory, technological, operational, and business trends. Let’s look at these in more detail.

Trends and Issues

This section explores issues directly relating to transportation today including fuel cost, labour, and environmental impacts. For more information on one of the biggest trends in tourism, online travel agencies (OTAs), and how online bookings impact the transportation sector, please see Chapter 7.

When it comes to moving people, fuel cost is critical. The cost of jet fuel is one of the single highest factors in airline profitability. In 2013, the average cost was around $125 per barrel, which was $5 less than the previous year (IATA, 2014a). Cruise ships consume a lower grade of diesel than do land vehicles, but they consume a lot of it. The QE2 , for example, consumes roughly 380 tonnes of fuel every day if travelling at 28.5 knots (Briggs, 2008).

As in all tourism-related sectors, cyclical labour shortages can significantly impact the transportation industry. In the aviation sector, a forecast found that by 2032 the world’s airlines will need 460,000 additional pilots and 650,000 new maintenance technicians to service current and future aircraft. The drive to find employees also extends to the maritime sector, where the International Maritime Organization (IMO) launched a “Go to sea!” campaign to attract more workers to the field (PWC, 2012).

Environmental Impacts

In addition to fuel and labour costs, and regulations we’ve covered already, the transportation sector has a significant impact on the natural environment.

Air Impacts

According to the David Suzuki Foundation (2014), the aviation industry is responsible for 4% to 9% of climate change impacts, and greenhouse gas emissions from flights have risen 83% since 1990. Airline travel has a greater emissions impact than driving or taking the train per passenger kilometre, which caused a bishop in the UK to famously declare that “Making selfish choices such as flying on holiday [is] a symptom of sin” (Barrow, 2006).

Rail Impacts

Rail travel is widely regarded as one of the most environmentally friendly modes of transportation due to its low carbon dioxide emissions. Railways come under fire outside of the tourism realm, however, as freight shipping can produce hazards to resident health including an increased risk of developing cancer and noise pollution (The Impact Project, 2012).

Cruise Impacts

Cruise ships can generate significant pollution from black water (containing human waste), grey water (runoff from showers, dishwashers, sinks), bilge water (from the lowest compartment of the ship), solid waste (trash), and chemical waste (cleaners, solvents, oil). One ship can create almost a million litres of grey water, over 113,000 litres of black water, and over 140,000 litres of bilge water every day. Depending on the regulations in the operating areas, ships can simply dump this waste directly into the ocean. Ballast tanks, filled to keep the ship afloat, can be contaminated with species which are then transported to other areas, disrupting sensitive ecosystems (Briggs, 2008).

Land Impacts

A recent study found that the impact of travel on land is highly dependent on the number of passengers. Whereas travelling alone in a large SUV can have high emissions per person (as high as flying), increasing the number of passengers, and using a smaller vehicle, can bring the impact down to that of train travel ( Science Daily , 2013).

For more information on the environmental impacts of the transportation sector, and how to mitigate these, read Chapter 10.

As you’ve learned, the transportation sector can have an effect on climate change, and changes in weather have a strong effect on transportation. According to Natural Resources Canada (2013), some of these include:

• More drastic freeze-thaw cycles, destroying pavement and causing ruts in asphalt
• Increased precipitation causing landslides, washing out roads, and derailing trains
• Effects and costs of additional de-icing chemicals deployed on aircraft and runways (over 50 million litres were used worldwide in 2013)
• Delayed flights and sailings due to increased storm activity
• Millions of dollars of infrastructure upgrades required as sea levels increase and flood structures (replacing or relocating bridges, tunnels, ports, docks, dykes, helipads and airports)

The threat of climate change could significantly impact sea-level airports such as YVR, and some 50 additional registered airports across Canada that sit at five metres or less above sea level (Natural Resources Canada, 2013).

For this reason, it’s important that the sector continue to press for innovations and greener transportation choices, if only to ensure future financial costs are kept at bay.

Tourism, freight, and resource industries such as forestry and mining sometimes compete for highways, waterways, and airways.  It’s important for governments to engage with various stakeholders and attempt to juggle various economic priorities — and for tourism to be at the table during these discussions.

That’s why in 2015 the BC Ministry of Transportation released its 10-year plan, BC on the Move . Groups like the Tourism Industry Association of BC actively polled their members in order to have their concerns incorporated into the plan. These included highway signage and wayfaring, the future of BC Ferries, and urban infrastructure improvements.

You can view the plan by visiting  http://engage.gov.bc.ca/transportationplan/

This chapter has taken a brief look at one of the most complex, and vital, components of our industry. Chapter 3 covers accommodations and is just as essential.

• Ancillary revenues: money earned on non-essential components of the transportation experience including headsets, blankets, and meals
• Blue Sky Policy: Canada’s approach to open skies agreements that govern which countries’ airlines are allowed to fly to, and from, Canadian destinations
• Cruise BC: a multi-stakeholder organization responsible for the development and marketing of British Columbia as a cruise destination
• Cruise Lines International Association (CLIA): the world’s largest cruise industry trade association with representation in North and South America, Europe, Asia, and Australasia
• International Air Transport Association (IATA) : the trade association for the world’s airlines
• Low-cost carrier (LCC): an airline that competes on price, cutting amenities and striving for volume to achieve a profit
• National Airports Policy (NAP): the 1994 policy that saw transfer of 150 airports from federal control to communities and other local agencies, essentially deregulating the industry
• Open skies: a set of policies that enable commercial airlines to fly in and out of other countries
• Passenger load factor: a way of measuring how efficiently a transportation company uses its vehicles on any given day, calculated for a single flight by dividing the number of passengers by the number of seats
• Railway Safety Act: a 1985 Act to ensure the safe operation of railways in Canada
• Ridesharing apps: applications for mobile devices that allow users to share rides with strangers, undercutting the taxi industry
• Transportation Safety Board (TSB): the national independent agency that investigates an average of 3,200 transportation safety incidents across the country every year
• When did the first paid air passenger take flight? What would you say have been the three biggest milestones in commercial aviation since that date?
• If a flight with 500 available seats carries 300 passengers, what is the passenger load factor?
• Why is it difficult for new airlines to take off in Canada?
• How did some of BC’s regional airports come into existence? What are some of the challenges they face today?
• How much economic activity is generated by YVR every year?
• What are the key differences between river cruises and ocean cruises? Who are the target markets for these cruises?
• Which cities attract more than 50% of the cruise traffic in Canada?
• What are the priorities for transportation infrastructure development as outlined in Vancouver’s Tourism Master Plan? What other transportation components would you include in your community’s tourism plan?
• What are some of the environmental impacts of the transportation sector? Name three. How might these be lessened?

Case Study: Air North

Founded in 1977 by Joseph Sparling and Tom Wood, Air North is a regional airline providing passenger and cargo service between Yukon and destinations including BC, Alberta, and Alaska. In 2012, Air North surpassed one million passengers carried. Employing over 200 people, the airline is owned in significant part by the Vuntut Development Corporation, the economic arm of the Vuntut Gwitchin First Nation (VGFN). In fact, one in 15 Yukoners owns a stake in the airline (Air North, 2015).

The ownership model has meant that economic returns are not always the priority for shareholders. As stated on its website, “ the maximization of profit is not the number one priority,” as air service is a “lifeline” to the VGFN community. For this reason, service and pricing of flights is extremely important, as are employment opportunities. 

Visit the corporate information portion of the Air North website and answer the following questions: http://www.flyairnorth.com/Experience/about-air-north.aspx

• What is the number one priority of Air North? How is the company structured to ensure it can meet its goals in this area?
• What does Air North consider to be its competitive advantage? How does this differ from other airlines?
• Describe the investment portfolio of the Vuntut Development Corporation. What types of companies does it own? Why might they have selected these types of initiatives?
• List at least three groups that have a stake in the airline. What are their interests? Where do their interests line up, and where do they compete?
• In your opinion, would this regional airline model work in your community? Why or why not?

Air North. (2015). Corporate information . Retrieved from www.flyairnorth.com/Experience/Corporate.aspx

Airbus. (2014). A380: Boost your profitability. Retrieved from http://www.airbus.com/aircraftfamilies/passengeraircraft/a380family/

Aviation Safety Network. (2012, March 4). Canadian Airlines International . Retrieved from http://aviation-safety.net/database/operator/airline.php?var=7022

Barrow, Becky. (2006, July 23). Flying on holiday ‘a sin’, says bishop.   Daily Mail Online . Retrieved from http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-397228/Flying-holiday-sin-says-bishop.html

BC Ferries. (2014, June 17). BC Ferries proudly celebrates 50 sears of Service . Retrieved from http://www.bcferries.com/about/history/history.html

BREA. (2013, March). The economic contribution of the international cruise industry in Canada 2012 .  Prepared for:  North West & Canada Cruise Association, St. Lawrence Cruise Association, Atlantic Canada Cruise Association, Cruise BC. Exton, PA: Business Research & Economic Advisors, p. 1-5.

Briggs, Josh.  (2008, May 1). How cruise ships work . Retrieved from http://adventure.howstuffworks.com/cruise-ship.htm

British Columbia Ministry of Transportation and Highways. (n.d.). Frontier to freeway: A short illustrated history of the roads in British Columbia. [PDF] Retrieved from http://www.th.gov.bc.ca/publications/frontiertofreeway/frontiertofreeway.pdf

British Columbia Ministry of Transportation and Infrastructure. (2012). Connecting with the world: An aviation strategy for British Columbia [PDF] . Retrieved from http://www.th.gov.bc.ca/airports/documents/2012_AviationStrategy.pdf

Brustein, Joshua and Caroline Winter. (2014, February 28). If Uber is killing taxis, what explains the million-dollar medallions.   Business Week . Retrieved from http://www.businessweek.com/articles/2014-02-28/if-uber-is-killing-taxis-what-explains-new-yorks-million-dollar-medallions

Canadian Geographic . (September/October 2000). Canadian aviation history.  Retrieved from http://www.canadiangeographic.ca/magazine/so00/aviation_history.asp

Canadian Museum of Flight. (2014). The history of flight in BC . Retrieved from http://www.canadianflight.org/content/history-flight-bc-0

Canadian Press. (2013, December 12). BC Ferries crash lawsuit targets electronics firm.   Huffpost British Columbia . Retrieved from http://www.huffingtonpost.ca/2013/12/22/bc-ferries-crash-lawsuit_n_4490818.html

CBC News. (2014, May 12.) MM&A Railway faces charges in Lac-Megantic disaster – Montreal – CBC News . Retrieved from http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/montreal/mm-a-railway-faces-charges-in-lac-mégantic-disaster-1.2640654

CLIA. (2014, January 16). The state of the cruise industry in 2014: Global growth in passenger numbers and product offerings . Retrieved from http://www.cruising.org/regulatory/news/press_releases/2014/01/state-cruise-industry-2014-global-growth-passenger-numbers-and-product-o

Conference Board of Canada. (2012, September 13). Canada’s airlines hoping to return to the black in 2013. Retrieved from http://www.conferenceboard.ca/press/newsrelease/12-09-14/canada_s_airlines_hoping_to_return_to_the_black_in_2013.aspx

Cruise BC. (2014). Cruise BC, Canada – Cruise executives . Retrieved from http://www.cruisebc.ca/index.php?page=5

CTV News. (2014a).  Feds order Via Rail to address ‘safety’ issues at 6 Ottawa railway crossings . Retrieved from http://www.ctvnews.ca/business/feds-order-via-rail-to-address-safety-issues-at-6-ottawa-railway-crossings-1.1771156

CTV News. (2014b, October 1). Vancouver delays Uber, new cabs for six months. Retrieved from http://bc.ctvnews.ca/vancouver-delays-uber-new-cabs-for-six-months-1.2034892

Cubbon, Paul. (2010, October 22). Rocky economy can’t derail train company. The Globe and Mail. Retrieved from http://www.theglobeandmail.com/report-on-business/small-business/rocky-economy-cant-derail-train-company/article1241050/

David Suzuki Foundation. (2014). Air travel and climate change. Retrieved from http://www.davidsuzuki.org/issues/climate-change/science/climate-change-basics/air-travel-and-climate-change/

DBRS. (2010, May). Rating Canadian rental car securitizations . Retrieved from http://www.dbrs.com/research/232631

Dupuis, Jean. (2011, November 16). VIA Rail Canada Inc. and the future of passenger rail in Canada . Ottawa, ON: Library of Parliament. Retrieved from http://www.parl.gc.ca/Content/LOP/ResearchPublications/2011-93-e.htm#a8

Economist, The . (2011, December 22). Business quotations: Our favourite air lines . Retrieved from http://www.economist.com/blogs/gulliver/2011/12/business-quotations

Gill, Vijay and  R. Neil Raynor. (2013, September).  Growing Canada’s economy: A new national air transportation policy . Ottawa, ON: Conference Board of Canada, p. i -4. 

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Attributions

Figure 2.1  Sky Jet   by Jez  is used under a  CC-BY-NC-ND 2.0  license.

Figure 2.2  Airbus 380-800  by Ponte112  is used under a  CC-BY-NC-SA 2.0  license.

Figure 2.3  airplane 036   by MamaMia05  is used under a  CC-BY 2.0  license.

Figure 2.4  C.P.R. Mount Stephen House, Field, BC, 1909   by Musee McCord Museum has  No known copyright restrictions .

Figure 2.5  Sunset Cruise   by Evan Leeson  is used under a  CC-BY-NC-SA 2.0  license.

Figure 2.6  Uniworld River Cruises River Beatrice in Passau Germany   by Gary Bembridge  is used under a  CC-BY 2.0  license.

Figure 2.7   BC Ferry   by David Lewis  is used under a  CC-BY-NC-ND 2.0  license.

Figure 2.8 Lincoln Town Car   by Nathan  is used under a  CC-BY-NC-ND 2.0  license.

Figure 2.9  Baltimore Airport   by Lee Ruk  is used under a  CC-BY-SA 2.0  license.

Introduction to Tourism and Hospitality in BC Copyright © 2015 by Morgan Westcott is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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History of transportation

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The history of transportation is a long and fascinating one! Just like the history of tourism , we have come a long way since transportation was first introduced and there are now many different types of transport around the world . In this article I tell you all about the fascinating history of transportation and the transport industry….

The history of transportation

The history of transportation – roads, the history of transportation – cars , the history of transportation – bikes, rail travel, the history of transportation – air travel, the history of transportation – water travel, the history of transportation – space travel, further reading.

Before we saw any innovations when it came to transport, the distance that people could travel was very limited. This had an impact on trade, exploration, and knowledge of what lay beyond your immediate surroundings.

Thanks to technological advances, we are now able to travel globally. This means goods can be traded across continents, and we now have a thriving tourism industry. We can travel more quickly, and further than ever before. We can also transport more (and bigger/heavier) cargo loads.

This article will discuss the history of transportation from the early days of road track created by human feet as people trekked various routes, right through to modern air and space transport!

Land travel

The history of transportation begins with land travel and transport. When people wanted to get from A to B they would walk, and as more people walked the same route trails were established. This was simply due to the wearing down of the earth by peoples’ feet, and also by animal hooves when people started to use horses, camels, donkeys and so on to transport light cargo. Places with high-traffic density (more people walking that route) had more well-established tracks.

As trade increased , these tracks were purposely widened in order to allow for animals to get through. This was necessary as frames were invented to carry goods – such as the travois, a historical frame structure used by indigenous people like the Plains Aboriginals of North America, to drag loads over land. These gave way to carriages, carts and so on – early primitive forms of transport.

The ancient Romans were key players when it came to the formation of proper roads. This was due to the size of their empire and the wealth of trade they took part in. They built roads from around 300 BC, and these were much more established than the dust tracks that came before. Paved and strong, they were used by armies, civilians and traders. The Roman roads were expanded on throughout Europe and the rest of the world, and were used for public and leisure transport too.

Roman roads saw a significant improvement when cars were invented. Cobblestones and wooden paving were no longer good enough, so hard topped roads were created using tarmac. Cars were invented in 1886, with the patent application of Carl Benz for the first “vehicle powered by a gas engine”. It wasn’t until 1908, however, when cars started becoming available to the general public – with the release of Ford’s Model T.

Cars are now obviously one of the most common forms of road/land transport. And then came buses – horses buses already existed, but now motor buses were becoming prominent. Steam buses and electric trolleys were around in the 1800s in some places, but motor buses as we know them came into play not long into the 1900s. We now have both buses and coaches, which are similar but with different roles. Buses are for short distance transport within/between towns and cities, whereas coaches allow for long-distance inter-city (and inter-country) transport.

And we can’t forget bikes, one of the most cost-effective and eco-friendly forms of transportation. The bicycle was invented in 1817, and at first had no wheels! You can read a brief history of bicycles here ! Modern motorcycles were then invented in the late 1800s by German engineers Hildebrand and Wolfmuller.

Land transport is common – from cars to buses to bikes, there are plenty of ways to get around on land. This is before you even get into trucks, lorries and other forms of land transportation vehicles…

• The first van was recorded in 1829
• Trams were first invented in 1875
• The first lorry (horse powered) was invented in 1876
• Trucks were first invented in 1896
• The first limousine was invented in 1902

There are so many types of vehicles and transportation used around the world! To go into all of them in this history of transportation would be impossible, but this article aims to provide an overview of the history at least.

Technically a type of land transport, rail travel is a vastly popular way of transporting both citizens and cargo. It is more eco-friendly than many other forms of land travel, and the history of transportation would be nothing without including rail travel…

You can read my articles about the advantages of rail transport and the different types of rail transport in order to gain an even better understanding of rail travel around the world.

Rail travel can be traced back around 500 years. At this time in the history of transportation, the rails were wooden and the systems powered by horse or man. In the 1760s cast iron rails were introduced, but they were replaced with wrought iron rails. In 1802, Cornish engineer Richard Trevithick both designed and built the first steam locomotive to run on smooth rails. He showed off his railway invention in the Welsh mining town of Merthyr Tydfil. A few years later, in 1807, we saw the first passenger-carrying public railway. It was opened by the Swansea and Mumbles Railway at Oyster mouth in 1807, using horse-drawn carriages on existing tramlines. 

Engineers started working to improve steam rail transport. The first modern rail transport systems appeared in England in the 1820s, so it didn’t take long! The first intercity railway (between Liverpool and Manchester) was built by George Stephenson in 1830. This was the first modern railroad.

Trains now can travel between towns, cities and countries. Journeys between London and Paris are frequent for example, but you would also travel between small towns or even just different suburbs by train.

Air travel can be traced back thousands of years, in the most basic sense – tower jumping and kites, which cannot *really* be labelled as transport but equally cannot be ignored when it comes to the history of transportation.

However, the actual earliest human flight took place in 1783, in Paris. Jean-François Pilâtre de Rozier and François Laurent d’Arlandes travelled 5 miles in a hot air balloon invented by the Montgolfier brothers. Some 20 years later, the famed Wright brothers made the first ‘sustained, controlled and powered heavier-than-air flight’.

Following on from this air travel revolution, planes and other forms of air transport were being invented and produced rapidly. WW2 sped up this effort even more so, and after this we saw a huge step up in terms of commercial aviation. You can read a more in-depth history of aviation here !

Now, air travel is used for tourism, the military and also the transportation of cargo over long distances. From budget Ryanair flights between European cities to large cargo planes travelling across continents, the invention of air travel changed the history of transportation massively.

Water travel has a long history. Boats date back to the stone age, allowing for both navigation of, and fishing in, rivers. As civilisation grew, so did the boats – becoming bigger to allow for use in trade and war. Thanks to the Industrial Revolution in the 1760s onwards, we saw the invention of steam-powered boats and also diesel-powered ships; submarines were invented for the military, and specialised vessels were created for use on canals.

Boats, ships and other water vessels have played a huge part in world history, not just the history of transportation. Columbus, famed explorer, traveled by boat to discover America; the first transatlantic crossing was over water, rather than by air, and Antarctica was also discovered by water travel.

The history of transportation has seen huge changes when it comes to water travel. From fishing boats to cruise ships to car ferries, there are so many different types of ‘boat’. Port cities have long been sites of great importance, allowing for trade, and water travel is now used for all sorts of transportation. Small ferries allow for commuting, cruise ships are the perfect holiday, and naval ships support war and military efforts across the globe.

Konstantin Tsiolkovsky (1857-1935) was the first to pioneer astronautic theory – the idea of flying into outer space. However, his work was not massively influential (or understood) outside of Russia . Space travel as an engineering possibility came in 1919, with the publication of A Method of Reaching Extreme Altitudes by Robert H. Goddard – an American. It is apt, then, that we later saw the space race unfold between Russia and America. Both countries wanted to be the first to achieve it, and later, to land on the moon.

It was the Soviet space program that achieved the first human space flight, in 1961 with their Vostok 1 mission. Kerim Kerimov, one of the lead architects of this mission, went out to launch the first space docks and space stations through the 20th century. Then, in 1969, NASA and their Apollo 11 mission achieved the first human spaceflight to the moon; Neil Amstrong and Buzz Aldrin were the first astronauts to set foot on the planet. 

In much more recent space travel history, William Shatner has just become the oldest person to travel into space (aged 90) thanks to Jeff Bezos and Blue Origin. Space tourism is now a real thing(!) and the company aims to make space travel realistic for more people, by developing reusable launch vehicles. This is a huge turning point in terms of the history of transportation!

If you enjoyed reading this article, I am sure that you will love these too-

• 50 types of transport from around the world
• Types of rail transport
• What is the relationship between transport and tourism?
• Advantages of rail transport
• Importance of road transport

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The 21 Different Types of Tourists

There are different types of tourists around the world. These tourists typically specialize in a single type of tourism such as cultural holidays so they can be easily categorized.

While many tourists are generally interested in multiple aspects of holidaying, some simply prefer to stay in line with very specific interests as follows.

Table of Contents

1. Adventure tourists

Adventure tourists are considered the most daring out there. These people are very active and they breathe experiences. Adventure tourists can be locked in a resort for a couple of weeks as this would simply ruin their vacation. They need action, change of scenery, meeting new people, and experiencing new things.

But what is adventure tourism? This style of tourism often involves outdoor adventures such as safari escapes, or desert dirt bike rides. It can involve any activity that is considered adventurous.

Adventure tourists are known for their high interest in getting into new experiences. If many tourists aren’t willing to travel far for their passions, this can be different for adventure tourists.

For example, some of the most unique swimming with the sharks’ experiences are very remote. Yet, adventure tourists always travel to these locations for the experience.

The most important word to describe these tourists is ‘experience’. All adventure seekers are normally interested in the experience more than being interested in simple everyday activities that are repetitive and monotone.

Adventure tourists aren’t afraid of looking beyond comfort as well. These holidaymakers aren’t always seeking to sleep in the most luxurious hotels. They might even sacrifice personal comfort for the awaiting experience.

2. Backpack tourists

Backpack tourists are typically frugal and interested in multiple aspects of tourism. As their category name suggests, these tourists are normally only traveling with a backpack. This is where they keep clothes, shoes, sunglasses, charges, and even food. Traveling with a backpack isn’t easy. You have to carry it around with you all day.

So why do backpack tourist numbers increase year by year if it’s so difficult to carry a backpack all day? The first reason has to do with economics. It’s simply more affordable to stay in backpack hostels and bed and breakfasts than to stay in typical hotels. It’s also less worrying as these tourists have all their belongings with them at all times.

Most importantly, backpack tourism is fun. Those into this type of holidaymaking aren’t afraid to put on sports shoes and comfortable clothing and get moving. They can see and experience multiple other aspects of their traveling location compared to other tourists.

Backpack tourists also differentiate themselves from adventure tourists as they can be into different aspects such as seeing cultural landmarks and even traveling for good restaurants. They can combine all aspects of tourism with an adventure into a unique budget-friendly type of holidaymaking.

Shortly called ‘backpackers’ these tourists are seen everywhere from busy city streets to remote mountain paths. They are generally highly self-driven and they require minimum guidance to get around as they like to plan.

3. Business tourists

Business tourists are a bit more difficult to stop compared to backpackers. Normally traveling for work purposes, business tourists are mostly interested in their work duties. Of course, things change during the day when these work duties are over.

Known for their tight schedule, business tourists are typically interested to discover the area where they need to work for a while. This means they can jump into the typical tourist attractions, check out local museums, restaurants, and parks.

Business tourists are normally blessed when it comes to expenses. Most business tourists have their transport and accommodation costs covered. This then means they might have money to get into shopping or to other activities that aren’t specifically free.

Those who travel for business are rarely called tourists, however. It’s only the group that has the time to become part-time tourists that are lucky enough to discover new places. There are plenty of professionals traveling for business with no time for holidaying.

New York is the number one business tourist destination. Known for its high number of business and economic development, the city also offers plenty of world-class landmarks to visit, making it the perfect stop for business tourists.

4. Cruise tourists

A special type of tourist is only interested in going on a cruise. Many cruise tourists are seniors and seeing the world from a cruise ship is often a yearly holiday for them. Carnival Cruises and other similar companies offer complete tourist packages for these seniors. Almost all of them have the freedom to choose which countries they want to visit as cruises take tourists on different types of tours.

Some cruises are only bound to the Gulf of Mexico. Others travel around Central and South America. There are also very popular Mediterranean cruises for those who want to travel along Southern Europe’s coast from Portugal to Greece with stops in Spain, France, and Italy.

The main benefit of these cruises is they allow their customers to see different countries as special port stops are planned along the route.

Cruise tourists have also been known to be among those who love long holidays the most. There are plenty of cruses that last more than a month and this type of adventure can certainly count as the summer holiday.

Cruise tourists generally travel in couples or small groups. It’s rare to find solo cruise tourists. Most cabins available on cruise ships are for couples. This is why they can be the ideal type of escape for tourists and couples who want to relax for a few weeks.

Most cruise tourists appreciate good food, drinks, and the ability to socialize on the ship. This is why all cruise ships offer one or multiple restaurants, a common socializing area, a sunbathing deck, music nights, and even casino nights. This is why some tourists even prefer not to step off the ship even when docked as all amenities are covered for them.

5. Cultural tourists

Culture is a sub-niche of traveling. Culture travelers differentiate themselves considerably from others as they choose different destinations to the typical beach resort escape. They might even travel to the same places as others but they visit different attractions.

As their name suggests, cultural tourists are into the culture. This vast area of interest typically covers, history with its museums, education with learning opportunities, ethnographies with its traditions, etc. Being a cultural tourist means you check out all of the cultural attractions of your destinations such as theatres, cinemas, and old cathedrals.

A cultural tourist is typically traveling at a slow pace so there’s sufficient time to admire and participate in different cultural events. Most cultural tourists can be seen in museums. Offering a glimpse into the history of an area, museums are ideal for cultural tourists as they often meet other tourists from around the world also interested in culture.

Cultural tourism flourishes in historically-rich cities and countries. Italy, France, and England are some of the most visited cultural hubs around the world. Italy’s renascence period with its painters, sculptors, and architects still attracts millions of tourists from around the world. These tourists are there to see these aspects that are unique to Italy as they can’t be reproduced anywhere else.

Being a cultural tourist also has its downsides. As every place is unique, cultural tourists typically want to visit more places that require a considerable budget. Visiting London is an experience that is certainly enriched by visiting other British cultural hubs such as Durham or Oxford. All of these cities can offer a combined cultural vacation of at least a week.

6. Domestic tourists

One of the main categories of holidaymakers is represented by domestic tourists. These travelers are typically interested in what their native countries have to offer. Domestic tourism means discovering locals places within the country.

Domestic tourists travel by airplane, car, bicycle, or they even hitchhike. This is one of the most important aspects when it comes to discovering and rediscovering your own country.

All domestic tourism is typically based on the same rules and international tourism, with a busy season where an influx of travelers is expected. For most tourists, it is also a good opportunity to look at what makes their country great.

Domestic tourism incorporates all other types of tourism. Its sub-niches include cultural domestic tourism, culinary domestic tourism, adventure domestic tourism, leisure domestic tourism, etc.

Domestic tourists are also typically interested in multiple aspects of their travels. Visiting a city or a region is typically accompanied by discovering its main touristic attractions and things to do.

7. Eco-tourists

Eco tourists are a growing niche of travelers highly preoccupied with sustainability, ecology, and general nature care. This type of tourism is growing fast around the world and it has a minimalistic approach with a reduced impact on the environment.

Riding dirt bikes through green fields is not ecotourism. But cycling through rural areas is considered eco-tourism, with its care for nature.

Most eco-tourists travel by car or plane to a certain destination. But they can also travel by bike or even walk multiple days to reach a destination or to experience all that it has to offer.

Rural Italy offers great world-class eco-tourism destinations. Small family farms here show tourists how to live like a local, cook like a local, and even how to care for animals.

There’s a modern side to eco-tourism as well. All types of reduced environmental impact technologies such as e-bikes are included in guided eco-tourism tours.

Most eco-tourists appreciate a way of life that cares for nature and what it has to offer. This is why excessive waste isn’t characteristic to these types of tourists which tend to be the best when it comes to not leaving traces of their visit even when out in nature.

Eco tourists are also smart when it comes to limiting the resources they need on holiday. This is why this type of tourism is often characterized as affordable. But it can still be expensive with the exception that these types of eco-tourists know how to make the most from very few resources.

8. Food tourists

Food tourists are a special type of gourmand holidaymakers. Food tourist travels their country and other countries to eat diverse foods. This type of tourism is flourishing in the conditions in which foods become more standardized in developed nations and since certain meals can only be experienced among the locals who make them often.

Among food tourists, there are plenty of sub-divisions such as vegan food tourists or Asian food tourists. All of them are interested in very specific aspects of food. But most food tourists have an open mind to all types of foods and countries.

Cultures influence food considerably. This is why learning about culture often means tasting the food it makes and seeing what characterizes its delicious taste.

Food tours are now offered constantly by travel agents. Some of the best food travel destinations are those in South East Asia. Thailand is one of the specific destinations for good affordable food. Italy is also known for its rich culinary history and people from all over the world make it here to eat unique pizza and pasta.

But food tourists can also travel by themselves. To be considered a food tourist, travelers have to specifically set out to a certain destination for its food. But food tourists can also be found inside the country. Seattle and New York are cities with a rich culinary history.

Texas is known as the state to be in when it comes to stakes. People travel to these locations to eat the best foods as made by those with cooking experience.

Food tourists are also responsible for making various restaurants famous. For example, some of the best Michelin-star restaurants in Spain and the world are located in often isolated locations in small towns and even in villages.

Food tourists travel long distances to reach these restaurants. Once there, they get to eat the food made by famous chefs and they often taste delicious meals made with entirely local ingredients. These tourists are generally known for a culinary passion.

9. Generalists

Generalist tourists are a combination of all types of tourists. These travelers set out to a certain destination with an open mind to experience as much as it has to offer. A generalist tourist can look at a certain style of architecture one day and be interested in the food of a city the next day.

All generalist tourists are typically looking into a holiday experience. This means accommodation and even traveling to multiple places within the region is of interest.

Most holidaymakers are generalists. They travel to different locations with a plan to see its tourist attractions, check out its museums, and even get immersed in unique experiences.

Generalist tourism isn’t characterized by traveling to certain destinations or in a given timeframe. It is characterized by the general will to travel. This is why it can look very different from one tourist to another.

Those who like to travel often describe themselves as tourists, but this generally involves being a generalist tourist.

10. Holiday tourists

Holiday tourists are those travelers that mainly go on holidays when traveling. A holiday is typically a period of at least a few days to relax away from home. Holiday tourists are the most popular type of travelers, especially among families.

Holidays are planned once or multiple times per year and this means taking time away from work and typical chores to travel.

You can see holiday tourists especially around resorts, beaches, camps, and all other locations typically associated as touristy. Florida is a good example of a holiday tourist state. It attracts people from all around the world who say the visit to the sunny state is a ‘holiday’.

The English expression ‘I holiday in’ refers to taking a yearly vacation in a certain location. This is why holiday tourists are those travelers who are typically on a longer vacation, typically the summer vacation which is the longest for most.

Holiday tourists can travel both by themselves and in groups. A holiday can be taken as a way to relax for health purposes. A doctor can recommend going on a holiday for patients under constant stress. Going on holiday is seen as taking a few days up to a few weeks off to relax completely and to have the occasion to reduce stress by worrying less.

Those on holiday are typically using the term in different situations. But their expressions can sometimes be confusing. ‘Holiday food’ is the food made at home, typically during religious celebrations such as Christmas or Easter. Holiday food is rarely used to refer to the meals consumed while away on a summer holiday.

11. International tourists

Most tourists are willing to travel to almost any location. But among general travelers, there’s a distinct category only willing to travel abroad. Many reasons make international tourists only consider holidaying abroad.

Among them is the experience of visiting most tourist attractions in their own countries. Another reason can be the appeal of a certain destination, particularly for its popularity.

International travel is at an all-time high in recent years. With the advent of low-cost air travel companies, the opportunities and the cost of international travel are in the favor of travelers. A large percentage of international tourists are planning their holidays accordingly as this is the type of travel that mostly rewards those who plan.

The perks of proper planning for international tourists include finding the lowest airplane ticket fares and the best accommodation prices. International travel can also be subject to extensive paperwork such as visa applications, proof of income, proof of residency, etc. While highly rewarding, international tourism can also require a bit more preparation than domestic tourism.

International tourists are also some of the most open when it comes to travel destinations. From the classic locations such as France and Spain to the most remote international travel locations such as Iceland, these travelers are typically willing to make an effort to reach the destination.

One of the perks of international travel is getting immersed in different cultures. This can be a bit more difficult to achieve with domestic travel. Major travel channels now recommend remote international travel due to the current pandemic. This is why Antarctica is one of the most remote international travel locations that gets recommended today.

12. Leisure tourists

Leisure tourists are a type of generalist travelers. These tourists are interested in taking a break from reality, seeing new places, eating new foods, experiencing new adventures, but without sacrificing rest and comfort.

Unlike backpackers or adventure tourists, leisure tourists also feel the need to relax while traveling. This is what makes them even more interested in locations with good accommodation options.

Leisure tourists are generally characterized by a slower pace of travel compared to adventure tourists. They like visiting the most popular touristic areas in their destination. Cultural experiences can’t be overlooked by these tourists as well.

Apart from visiting landmarks, leisure tourists also appreciate good diverse food options. All in all, these types of tourists are among the most proficient when it comes to making the most of a trip and coming back come reinvigorated.

13. Medical tourists

Medical tourists are known as patients who travel for healthcare purposes. Both incoming and outgoing patients have been increasing in the US. There are a few factors that influence these two trends.

Incoming patients to the US are typically those coming for a very specific medical intervention. The high number of specialized doctors in the US makes it an attractive country for those coming from smaller countries where there isn’t a great selection of doctors or where there are no proven interventions for a certain condition.

Outgoing US patients are leaving for other smaller countries to get cheaper and often free medical healthcare. Medical insurance costs are constantly rising in the US and this makes it the country almost impossible to get medical treatment for those with a certain condition that isn’t covered by insurance.

US citizens prefer to travel as little as possible to get medical healthcare. Most don’t head to Europe but rather to Central and South America. Costa Rica is the main destination for US medical tourists. Patients head to the country for a few weeks and even for a few months. They might be recommended a rest period under supervision for a certain medical intervention.

The number one reason for US medical tourists outside of the country is dentistry work. All dentistry interventions in the US are considered among the most expensive in the world. It’s a routine to see US citizens traveling abroad only for a few days to get work done on teeth and for other oral care interventions.

Mexico is another popular destination for US citizens seeking to travel to get better healthcare. The proximity of the country, its low prices, and high numbers of doctors and clinics make it a viable option for medical tourists.

While further away from the US, India is also a top destination for medical tourists. Doctors here are some of the best-trained in the world. Since most also speak English, their medical services become tempting to US citizens. Singapore also gets a high influx of US medical tourists. Some of the world’s largest hospitals and some of the top-level doctors here make the small country highly attractive for patients who need complex medical treatment from around the world.

14. Reflective tourists

Reflective tourists are characterized by the wish to travel and learn. It can be said learning has multiple faces in the case of these travelers. Tourists can travel to learn more about a place but they mostly travel to learn more about their heritage, where they come from, and the culture of their genealogy.

Europe is the main destination for reflective tourism. The continent has been known for waves of mass-level migration, especially to North and South America. This is why a rising number of reflective tourists make their way to Europe each year.

But what do these tourists do that others don’t? Reflective tourists are normally interested in culture hotspots. They visit museums, churches, theatres, exhibitions, stadiums, etc. These are all part of a wider spectrum of cultural attractions.

But reflective tourists can also dig a bit deeper into their family’s history. They might even visit local administration to get a trace of their lost relatives and get in contact to learn more about their family’s genealogy.

Reflective tourists are increasing in places such as Spain and Italy. Largely impacted by mass migration over a century ago and even today, these countries have been the main attraction for reflective tourists from the US, Canada, and Argentina.

Many of these countries even have tourism agencies specialized in offering services for reflective tourists on discovery or rediscovery trips.

15. Religious tourists

Religious tourists are one of the largest groups of travelers. These types of tourists are normally interested in heritage historic places of worship tied to their religion. Religious tourism is growing year by year but it isn’t new. Old pilgrimages were made thousands of years ago such as the Camino de Santiago in Spain.

Religious tourists can be split according to specific religions and branches within a religion. Jews are normally interested in traveling to Israel. Even Jews who aren’t into tourism are typically interested in visiting Israel at least once.

Jews also travel to other Jewish communities around the world frequently. They can even pitch in to build new Synagogues around the world or to restore historic places of worship.

Christians travel to Israel as well. They visit Jerusalem and Bethlehem mostly, without any particular interest in larger cities such as Tel Aviv. Christians also visit cathedrals, churches, and monasteries around the world.

Christian tour operators organized different circuit visits to specific countries where tourists get to see some of the most important Christian landmarks of the area.

Furthermore, Christians also organized mass pilgrimage events around the world. Other popular Christian destinations include The Vatican, especially for Catholic Christians.

Millions of Muslims visit Mecca each year. The celebrations here are normally held throughout the year. Located in Saudi Arabia, Mecca is a place of worship with strict rules. Pilgrims here aren’t allowed to drink alcohol, according to Muslim tradition.

16. Rural tourists

Rural tourists are normally interested in traditional villages. These types of tourists exist around the world. Rural tourism is completely dead in some areas around the world but it is also very popular in other areas.

Locronan in the Frances Britany region is the country’s main rural hotspot. It enjoys easy access from mainland Europe. Broad Campden in England’s Gloucestershire region is one of the most visited classic villages in the country and the world.

Its small streets, traditional homes, and relaxed way of life make it a high attraction for many of those interested in traveling away from large cities.

The perks of rural tourism include a slower way of traveling. It also allows tourists to meet the locals and improve socializing opportunities. Staying in rural areas also means enjoying different hotels. Far away from cities, the rural hotel often offers more wide-open spaces which encourage walks and time spent outdoors.

Rural tourists also have a few drawbacks to face. For example, there are not many great public transport links to some small villages around the world. This is why renting a car is often a must when it comes to making it to some of these remote towns and villages.

Rural tourism depends on your means of transport but this is what also protects it from becoming overly popular to a dangerous extent.

17. Romantic tourists

Romantic tourists are some of the most relaxed when it comes to traveling. It’s often as much about the journey as it is about the destination with these tourists. Most couples into romantic tourism love gateways.

This is why those into this type of travel typically love to get out more, to explore, and not to be rushed as being away on holiday is all that matters.

Paris is the capital of romantic tourism. Walking the streets of this city is almost an experience worth the trip on its own. With plenty of romantic sights and great street-side cafes, couples can get to spend more time together in a relaxed atmosphere here.

Venice is another popular hotspot for couples. This is where tourists come to experience romantic gondola rides. Almost all of the couples here come to see the canals of the city. But there are plenty of other attractions for these tourists here.

Romantic tourists typically holiday through the year. According to tradition, the honeymoon is the most sought after the period for romantic gateways. Newlywed couples typically go away for a few weeks on the honeymoon, typically to one or multiple romantic destinations.

The specifics of this type of tourism are tied to accommodation requirements, good food, possible shopping opportunities, and the ability to go on long walks. Since romantic tourists like long walks, the most important aspect when choosing a destination is safety, especially for evening time walks.

18. Senior tourists

Seniors love to travel. Since they’ve reached an age when they don’t have to take care of the children or when they don’t have to go to work, seniors can often go on longer holidays further away from home.

Tourism for seniors is increasing in popularity. Two separate types of tourists can be found among them. Couples and group senior tourists are the two main types of travelers seen among the elderly.

Senior couples prefer romantic relaxing locations. Being out in nature or even visiting some of the most important tourist cities around the world are attractive proposals to senior tourists.

Group senior tourists are also popular. Seen in every large city around the world, these groups travel together, they eat in the same places, and they visit the same attractions.

The benefits of traveling in groups as seniors include better safety, the opportunity to socialize, a pre-planned trip, and plenty of opportunities to have fun.

19. Slow-paced tourists

Slow-paced tourists are travelers who like to stay more in a certain location. Instead of spending two days in a city or village, these tourists can spend up to a week in a location. Slow-paced tourism can expand to holidays that take up to a month or even two months.

The benefits of slow-paced tourism are that it allows further discovery opportunities and more socializing opportunities. Slow-paced tourism is ideal for those interested in a cultural or discovery type of experience.

Villages in Germany are known for slow-paced tourism. People come here to see various traditions. They see livestock and farming that typically requires a slower pace of travel.

The benefits of slow travel are that it allows a deeper understanding of a certain culture. But even these types of travelers can be split into multiple sub-categories.

For example, slow-paced tourists can be interested in only visiting a country in appreciation for a certain personality. Slow-paced tourism developed the sub-niche of Shakespeare fans tourism in England.

20. Special interest tourists

Special interest tourists generally visit a location for one thing only. This can be anything from a sports adventure opportunity or to visit a famous landmark. Examples of special interest tourists are seen all across the world.

Most special interests are tied to a historic location, a sports occasion, an individual, or a religious significance place. For example, tourists only go to Santiago de Compostela to visit the city’s cathedral. The same one-attraction or one-activity type of tourism is seen all around the world.

21. Sports tourists

Sports tourism is at an all-time high. This type of tourism isn’t new, but the rise of sports and sports personalities makes people travel. Sports tourists often travel with their teams. Baseball fans and football fans often travel to support their teams.

But these tourists can also travel without a specific sporting event in mind. They can travel to see stadiums or they can travel to see important places in sports.

One of the most visited stadiums in the world is Camp Nou in Barcelona. This is the home of the most popular sports team in the world, FC Barcelona. The stadium sees millions of tourists per year. A large number of them only come here to see the stadium and the place where their favorite football players play.

Sports tourism has plenty to offer all around the world. The second most popular football team in the world is FC Liverpool. Its stadium is normally visited by thousands of tourists and football fans from around the world even when it’s not a match day. Groups are split into hourly visits and they get to visit the stadium in a 1-hour tour.

But the most important type of sports tourists is the traveler going to a certain event. In the US, sports tourists are best represented by Superbowl fans. This is where travelers from all around the country try to reach the finals, an event which is often quite expensive and difficult to get into.

A similar event is seen in Europe with the final Champions League game where sports fans from around the continent fight to get tickets to the event and to fly to the destination stadium for the big game.

The drawbacks of sports tourism are the lack of diversity outside stadiums, sports museums, and sporting events. Most of the tourists interested in a particular part of sports are normally reserved when it comes to traveling for other sports attractions such as small private sports memorabilia collections.

Unlike other tourists, sports tourists are known to spend a lot on events. Most sports events worth traveling for are known for their high ticket prices.

This is why sports fans typically have to start saving sooner compared to other tourists, especially since accommodation prices are higher in the period of a large nearby sporting event.

Saving up is mandatory for these tourists who need to spend more than others to reach a destination.

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Transportation Systems and Tourism

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The term “transportation system” is usually referred to the equipment and logistics of transporting passengers and goods. It covers the trips by all means of transport, from cars and buses to boats, aircraft, and even space travel. The objective of a transportation system is to coordinate the movement of people, goods, and vehicles in order to use routes most efficiently. When implemented, transportation systems seek to reduce transport costs and improve delivery times through effective timetabling and route management. Periodic re-evaluations and the development of alternative routes allow for timely changes to the transportation system for increasing the efficiency.

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Dileep, M.R., Pagliara, F. (2023). Transportation Systems and Tourism. In: Transportation Systems for Tourism. Advances in Spatial Science. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-22127-9_1

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