ibn battuta travel stops

The Life and Travels of Ibn Battuta, World Explorer and Writer

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Ibn Battuta (1304–1368) was a scholar, theologian, adventurer, and traveler who, like Marco Polo fifty years earlier, wandered the world and wrote about it. Battuta sailed, rode camels and horses, and walked his way to 44 different modern countries, traveling an estimated 75,000 miles during a 29 year period. He journeyed from North Africa to the Middle East and Western Asia, Africa, India and Southeast Asia.

Fast Facts: Ibn Battuta

• Name : Ibn Battuta
• Known For : His travel writing, which described the 75,000-mile journey he took during his rilha.
• Born : February 24, 1304, Tangier, Morocco
• Died : 1368 in Morocco 
• Education : Schooled in the Maliki tradition of Islamic law
• Published Works : A Gift to Those Who Contemplate the Wonders of Cities and the Marvels of Travelling or The Travels (1368

Early Years 

Ibn Battuta (sometimes spelled Batuta, Batouta, or Battutah) was born in Tangier, Morocco on February 24, 1304. He was from a fairly well-to-do family of Islamic legal scholars descended from Berbers, an ethnic group indigenous to Morocco. A Sunni Muslim trained in the Maliki tradition of Islamic law, Ibn Battuta left his home at the age of 22 to begin his rihla , or voyage.

Rihla is one of four forms of travel encouraged by Islam, the best known of which is Hajj, the pilgrimage to Mecca and Medina. The term rihla refers to both the travel and the genre of literature that describes the journey. The purpose of rihla is to enlighten and entertain readers with detailed descriptions of pious institutions, public monuments and religious personalities of Islam. Ibn Battuta's travelogue was written after he returned, and in it he stretched the conventions of the genre, including autobiography as well as some fictional elements from the 'adja'ib or "marvels" traditions of Islamic literature. 

Setting Off 

Ibn Battuta's journey began from Tangier on June 14, 1325. Originally intending to make a pilgrimage to Mecca and Medina, by the time he reached Alexandria in Egypt, where the lighthouse was still standing, he found himself entranced by the people and cultures of Islam. 

He headed for Iraq, Western Persia, then Yemen and the Swahili coast of East Africa. By 1332 he reached Syria and Asia Minor, crossed the Black Sea and reached the territory of the Golden Horde. He visited the steppe region along the Silk Road and arrived at the oasis of Khwarizm in western central Asia. 

Then he traveled through Transoxania and Afghanistan, arriving in the Indus Valley by 1335. He stayed in Delhi until 1342 and then visited Sumatra and (perhaps—the record is unclear) China before heading home. His return trip took him back through Sumatra, the Persian Gulf, Baghdad, Syria, Egypt, and Tunis. He reached Damascus in 1348, just in time for the arrival of the plague, and returned home to Tangier safe and sound in 1349. Afterwards, he made minor excursions to Granada and the Sahara, as well as to the West African kingdom of Mali.

A Few Adventures

Ibn Battuta was mostly interested in people. He met and talked with pearl divers and camel drivers and brigands. His traveling companions were pilgrims, merchants, and ambassadors. He visited countless courts.

Ibn Battuta lived on donations from his patrons, mostly elite members of Muslim society he met along the way. But he was not just a traveler—he was an active participant, often employed as a judge (qadi), administrator, and/or ambassador during his stops. Battuta took a number of well-placed wives, generally daughters and sisters of the sultans, none of whom are named in the text. 

Visiting Royalty

Battuta met countless royals and elites. He was in Cairo during the reign of the Mamluk Sultan al-Nasir Muhammad ibn Qalawun. He visited Shiraz when it was an intellectual haven for Iranians fleeing the Mongol invasion. He stayed in the Armenian capital of Staryj Krym with his host, the governor Tuluktumur. He detoured to Constantinople to visit Andronicus III in the company of the Byzantine emperor Ozbek Khan's daughter. He visited the Yuan emperor in China, and he visited Mansa Musa (r. 1307–1337) in West Africa. 

He spent eight years in India as a qadi in the court of Muhammad Tughluq, the Sultan of Delhi. In 1341, Tughluq appointed him to lead a diplomatic mission to the Mongol emperor of China. The expedition was shipwrecked off the coast of India leaving him with neither employment nor resources, so he traveled around southern India, Ceylon and the Maldive islands, where he served as qadi under the local Muslim government.

History of the Literary Rilha 

In 1536, after Ibn Battuta returned home, the Marinid ruler of Morocco Sultan Abu 'Ina commissioned a young literary scholar of Andalusian origins named Ibn Juzayy (or Ibn Djuzzayy) to record Ibn Battuta's experiences and observations. Over the next two years together, the men wove what would become the Book of Travels , based primarily on Ibn Battuta's memories, but also interweaving descriptions from earlier writers. 

The manuscript was circulated around different Islamic countries, but not much cited by Muslim scholars. It eventually came to the attention of the west by way of two adventurers of the 18th and 19th centuries, Ulrich Jasper Seetzen (1767–1811) and Johan Ludwig Burckhardt (1784–1817). They had separately purchased abridged copies during their travels throughout the Mideast. The first English language translation of those copies was published in 1829 by Samuel Lee.

Five manuscripts were found by the French when they conquered Algeria in 1830. The most complete copy recovered in Algiers was made in 1776, but the oldest fragment was dated 1356. That fragment had the title "Gift to Those Who Contemplate the Wonders of Cities and the Marvels of Traveling," and is believed to have been a very early copy indeed if not an original fragment. 

The complete text of the travels, with parallel Arabic and a French translation, first appeared in four volumes between 1853–1858 by Dufrémery and Sanguinetti. The full text was translated first into English by Hamilton A.R. Gibb in 1929. Several subsequent translations are available today. 

Criticism of the Travelogue

Ibn Battuta recounted tales of his travels throughout his voyage and when he returned home, but it was not until his association with Ibn Jazayy that the stories were committed to formal writing. Battuta took notes during the journey but admitted that he lost some of them along the way. He was accused of lying by some contemporaries, though the veracity of those claims is widely disputed. Modern critics have noted several textual discrepancies which hint at substantial borrowing from older tales. 

Much of the criticism of Battuta's writing is aimed at the sometimes confusing chronology and plausibility of certain parts of the itinerary. Some critics suggest he may have never reached mainland China, but did get as far as Vietnam and Cambodia. Parts of the story were borrowed from earlier writers, some attributed, others not, such as Ibn Jubary and Abu al-Baqa Khalid al-Balawi. Those borrowed parts include descriptions of Alexandria, Cairo, Medina, and Mecca. Ibn Battuta and Ibn Juzayy acknowledge Ibn Jubayr in the descriptions of Aleppo and Damascus. 

He also relied on original sources, relating historical events told to him in the courts of the world, such as the capture of Delhi and the devastations of Genghis Khan.

Death and Legacy 

After his collaboration with Ibn Jazayy ended, Ibn Batuta retired to a judicial post in a small Moroccan provincial town, where he died in 1368.

Ibn Battuta has been called the greatest of all travel writers, having traveled farther than Marco Polo. In his work, he provided priceless glimpses of the various people, courts and religious monuments around the world. His travelogue has been the source of countless research projects and historical investigations.

Even if some of the stories were borrowed, and some of the tales a bit too marvelous to be believed, Ibn Battuta's rilha remains an enlightening and influential work of travel literature to this day.

• Battuta, Ibn, Ibn Juzayy, and Hamilton A.R. Gibb. Ibn Battuta, Travels in Asia and Africa 1325-1354 . London: Broadway House, 1929. Print.
• Berman, Nina. " Questions of Context: Ibn Battuta and E. W. Bovill on Africa ." Research in African Literatures 34.2 (2003): 199-205. Print.
• Gulati, G. D. " Ibn Battuta in Transoxiana. " Proceedings of the Indian History Congress 58 (1997): 772-78. Print.
• Lee, Samuel. "The Travels of Ibn Batuta Translated from the Abridged Arabic Manuscript Copies " . London: Oriental Translation Committee, 1829. Print.
• Morgan, D. O. " Battuta and the Mongols ." Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 11.1 (2001): 1-11. Print.
• Norris, Harry. " Ibn Battuta on Muslims and Christians in the Crimean Peninsula ." Iran & the Caucasus 8.1 (2004): 7-14. Print.
• Waines, David. " The Odyssey of Ibn Battuta: Uncommon Tales of a Medieval Adventurer." London: I.B. Tauris & Cp, Ltd, 2010. Print.
• Zimonyi, István. " Ibn Battuta on the First Wife of Özbek Khan ." Central Asiatic Journal 49.2 (2005): 303-09. Print.
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The Travels of Ibn Battuta: Medieval Moroccan Explorer Traverses Three Continents

• Histories, mysteries and oddities

Have you ever wondered what it would be like to embark on a historical exploration alongside a daring Moroccan explorer ? Meet Ibn Battuta , the adventurous traveler who defied conventions and ventured across three continents in the medieval era. His global travel accounts provide a window into a world of discovery and open up a whole new perspective on historical exploration . So, are you ready to journey through time and uncover the secrets of Ibn Battuta’s extraordinary adventures?

The Travels of Ibn Battuta: Key takeaways

• Ibn Battuta , a medieval Moroccan explorer , broke travel records as he traversed three continents .
• His global travel accounts offer valuable insights into historical exploration and medieval cultures.
• Ibn Battuta’s adventures continue to inspire modern-day explorers.
• Embarking on Ibn Battuta’s journey opens up a world of awe-inspiring tales and discoveries.
• The Travel of Ibn Battuta is a testament to the enduring legacy of his explorations.

Ibn Battuta: A Medieval Moroccan Explorer

Meet Ibn Battuta, a fascinating figure in history renowned for his remarkable expeditions as a medieval adventurer and Moroccan explorer . Born in 1304 in Tangier, Morocco , Battuta embarked on a series of epic journeys that spanned over 30 years, covering a distance of nearly 75,000 miles across Africa, Asia, and Europe.

Battuta’s insatiable thirst for exploration and discovery led him to venture into uncharted territories, braving treacherous terrains, and encountering diverse cultures and civilizations along the way. His unparalleled travel accounts, documented in the famous literary work “Rihla,” provide valuable insights into the medieval world and its interconnectedness.

“Traveling leaves you speechless, then turns you into a storyteller.” – Ibn Battuta

Ibn Battuta’s adventurous spirit and determination to explore the unknown set him apart from his contemporaries. His voyages were not merely motivated by the pursuit of personal glory, but by a genuine curiosity to understand the world and its peoples. Battuta’s encounters with different cultures, languages, and traditions broadened his perspective and allowed him to develop a nuanced understanding of the medieval world.

Throughout his travels, Ibn Battuta faced numerous challenges, including dangerous encounters with bandits, the perils of long-distance desert crossings, and political upheavals in various regions. Yet, he persisted, driven by an unwavering passion for knowledge and discovery.

Inspired by the tales of other renowned Moroccan explorers such as Leo Africanus and Ibn Jubayr, Ibn Battuta etched his name in history as a prominent figure in medieval exploration. His contributions to Islamic travel literature and his meticulous accounts of his journey continue to captivate readers and inspire future adventurers even today.

Stay tuned as we delve deeper into Ibn Battuta’s extraordinary journey across three continents , where he encountered a myriad of cultures, civilizations, and awe-inspiring landscapes.

Journey Across Three Continents

Follow Ibn Battuta as he embarks on a remarkable journey across three continents, exploring the rich and diverse cultures of Asia, Africa, and Europe. Through his captivating travel experiences, we gain a glimpse into the world travel experiences of a medieval Moroccan explorer .

“Traveling, it leaves you speechless, then turns you into a storyteller.” – Ibn Battuta

Ibn Battuta’s expedition across three continents took him on a thrilling adventure filled with awe-inspiring encounters and fascinating discoveries. His travel accounts resonate with the spirit of exploration, capturing the essence of world travel experiences in an era long gone.

From the bustling markets of bustling markets of Damascus to the majestic pyramids of Cairo, Ibn Battuta left no stone unturned in his quest for knowledge and adventure. He traversed the deserts of North Africa, navigated treacherous mountain passes in the Middle East, and crossed the vast steppes of Central Asia.

The people he encountered, the traditions he witnessed, and the landscapes he beheld painted a vivid picture of the diverse tapestry of humanity. Each step brought him closer to understanding the interconnectedness of different cultures and the shared experiences that unite us all.

From the Silk Road to the Sahara Desert

One of the most remarkable aspects of Ibn Battuta’s journey was his exploration of the Silk Road. This ancient trade route connected Asia with Europe, serving as a conduit for cultural exchange and economic prosperity. As he traveled along this historic path, Ibn Battuta encountered bustling caravans, magnificent trading cities, and vibrant marketplaces.

His footsteps also led him to the vast expanse of the Sahara Desert. This inhospitable landscape presented a formidable challenge, but it also offered a glimpse into the nomadic way of life and the enduring spirit of those who call it home. From the sands of the Sahara to the peaks of the Atlas Mountains, Ibn Battuta immersed himself in the beauty of Africa’s landscapes.

Continuing his journey, he ventured into Europe, immersing himself in the rich history and architectural marvels of cities such as Constantinople and Granada. He marveled at the intricate designs of the Alhambra Palace and witnessed the majesty of the Hagia Sophia.

Throughout his travels, Ibn Battuta’s thirst for knowledge and adventure propelled him forward. From the bustling markets of bustling markets of Damascus to the majestic pyramids of Cairo, Ibn Battuta left no stone unturned in his quest for knowledge and adventure.

Embark on this virtual voyage across three continents and experience the world travel experiences of a medieval Moroccan explorer . Ibn Battuta’s tales of exploration and discovery continue to inspire us to this day, reminding us of the transformative power of travel and the endless possibilities that lie beyond our comfort zones.

Tales of Adventure and Discovery

Within the pages of Ibn Battuta’s travel accounts lie a treasure trove of awe-inspiring tales and unforgettable moments. As a medieval Moroccan explorer , Battuta traversed vast territories, encountering diverse cultures and landscapes that would captivate the imagination of any reader.

One such tale recounts his journey through the Sahara Desert, where he braved harsh conditions and witnessed the mesmerizing beauty of the shifting dunes. Battuta’s vivid descriptions allow readers to envision the vast expanse of the desert and experience the awe-inspiring sight of endless golden sands stretching as far as the eye can see.

Another awe-inspiring account takes readers to the vibrant markets of Cairo, where Battuta was immersed in the hustle and bustle of trade and barter. From the fragrant aromas of spices to the colorful tapestries lining the narrow streets, Battuta’s detailed observations bring the city to life, transporting readers to a time and place of bustling activity and cultural exchange.

“The world is a book, and those who do not travel read only one page.” – Ibn Battuta

Battuta’s encounters with indigenous tribes in sub-Saharan Africa also provide intriguing insights into their unique customs and practices. His keen observations and open-mindedness allowed him to connect with these communities, capturing their extraordinary traditions and adding a rich layer of diversity to his writings.

Through Battuta’s global travel accounts , readers are transported to far-flung lands, where they can witness the wonders of the world through the eyes of a true adventurer. From navigating treacherous mountain passes to encountering exotic wildlife, his tales of adventure and discovery provide a window into a bygone era and inspire wanderlust in even the most seasoned travelers.

Embark on a journey with Ibn Battuta through his unforgettable tales of adventure and discovery. Lose yourself in the vibrant tapestry of cultures and landscapes that shaped his global travel accounts, and be inspired to create your own remarkable stories along the way.

Unveiling the Secrets of Medieval Cultures

As Ibn Battuta embarked on his legendary journey, he not only traversed vast lands and encountered diverse landscapes but also had the incredible opportunity to unveil the secrets of medieval cultures. His interactions with different civilizations along his path provided him with invaluable insights into the customs, traditions, and way of life of the people he encountered.

Throughout his travels, Ibn Battuta meticulously documented his observations, creating a treasure trove of Islamic travel literature that offers a unique window into the medieval world. His narratives provide vivid descriptions of the social, political, and religious structures of the various societies he encountered, shedding light on the complexities and nuances of their cultures.

“The Islamic travel literature penned by Ibn Battuta serves as a time capsule, transporting readers back to a bygone era and immersing them in the sights, sounds, and flavors of medieval civilizations. It offers a fascinating glimpse into the daily lives and remarkable achievements of ancient cultures, enriching our understanding of history.” – Dr. Sarah Williams, Historian.

Islamic travel literature such as Ibn Battuta’s accounts serves as an invaluable resource for historians, researchers, and enthusiasts alike. It provides a unique perspective on the interconnectedness of medieval societies and the exchange of ideas, knowledge, and cultural practices that occurred across vast distances.

Exploring Medieval Cultures: A Multifaceted Lens

Ibn Battuta’s travel narratives allow us to explore medieval cultures from multiple angles, offering glimpses into various aspects of society. From the magnificent cities of the Islamic world, with their grand mosques and bustling markets, to the nomadic tribes across the Sahara desert, each stop on his journey unfolds a new facet of human history.

His encounters with rulers, scholars, and ordinary people shed light on the social hierarchies, intellectual pursuits, and belief systems prevalent during medieval times. Through his writings, we uncover the vibrant cultural tapestry of the past, as he describes architectural wonders, elaborate ceremonies, and regional traditions that have shaped our world today.

The Universal Language of Exploration

Ibn Battuta’s travel adventures transcend time and cultural boundaries, inspiring generations of explorers and wanderers. His tales of historical exploration ignite a sense of curiosity and wonder, urging us to venture beyond our own horizons and seek knowledge about the world we inhabit.

By unveiling the secrets of medieval cultures, Ibn Battuta’s travel literature enables us to bridge the gaps between different civilizations and foster a deeper appreciation for the rich tapestry of human history. It reminds us that, despite our differences, we are all connected through the universal language of exploration.

Breaking Travel Records and Inspiring Explorers

When it comes to medieval adventurers, few can match the extraordinary feats and indomitable spirit of Ibn Battuta. Not only did he embark on a remarkable journey across three continents, but he also broke travel records that seemed impossible at the time.

Ibn Battuta’s historical exploration took him to places that were previously unseen by many. He traversed vast deserts, treacherous mountain ranges, and sailed across treacherous seas. His determination and curiosity drove him to push the boundaries of exploration and discover new lands.

During his travels, Ibn Battuta recorded his experiences and observations in his renowned travel accounts. His vivid descriptions of exotic places, diverse cultures, and awe-inspiring adventures captivated readers then, and they continue to inspire modern-day explorers.

“I have indeed traveled widely, and my journeys have been vast and extensive. I have seen things that no man has ever seen before, and I have traversed lands that were nothing but mysterious tales in ancient books.”

His impact on historical exploration cannot be overstated. Ibn Battuta’s remarkable achievements encouraged future adventurers to follow in his footsteps, pushing the boundaries of human discovery further with each expedition. His legacy lives on in the hearts of those who dare to explore.

Inspired by his audacity, countless explorers embark on their own quests to unravel the mysteries of the world. They draw strength from his triumphs and learn from his failures, embracing the challenges that come with venturing into the unknown.

With each passing generation, Ibn Battuta’s name echoes through history as a symbol of courage and determination. His story serves as a reminder that the human spirit is capable of achieving the impossible.

Ibn Battuta’s Travel Records

These astonishing records are a testament to Ibn Battuta’s enduring legacy as a medieval adventurer and his contribution to historical exploration.

In conclusion, the remarkable journey of Ibn Battuta, chronicled in “The Travels of Ibn Battuta,” provides a captivating glimpse into the world travel experiences of one of history’s greatest explorers. Battuta’s expeditions across three continents unveil a tapestry of cultures, traditions, and landscapes that continue to inspire adventurers of all eras.

Through his meticulous observations, Battuta’s narrative enriches our understanding of medieval civilizations and offers valuable insights into historical exploration. His awe-inspiring tales of adventure and discovery in Islamic travel literature have stood the test of time, captivating generations with their vivid descriptions and firsthand accounts.

The enduring legacy of Ibn Battuta lies not only in his record-breaking achievements but also in his ability to bridge the gap between different cultures, fostering a deeper appreciation for the diverse world we live in. His adventures serve as a testament to the indomitable human spirit and the power of exploration in broadening our horizons.

I know what it's like to go from being a crazy backpacker without a care in the world, via being a vaguely sensible parent to being an adventurer once more. In other words, evolving into a Grown-up Traveller.

Like everyone else, I love to travel, have visited a lot of countries and all that but my big thing is Africa.

I also own and run The Grown-up Travel Company as a travel designer creating personalised African itineraries for experienced adventurers

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Ibn Battuta and the Marvels of Traveling the Medieval World

Ibn Battuta (1304-68/69, An illustration from Jules Verne’s book “Découverte de la terre” (“Discovery of the Earth”) drawn by Léon Benett

On 24 February 1304, Muslim Berber Moroccan scholar, and explorer Ibn Battuta was born. Over a period of thirty years, Ibn Battuta visited most of the Islamic world and many non-Muslim lands, including Central Asia, Southeast Asia, India and China. Near the end of his life, he dictated an account of his journeys, titled A Gift to Those Who Contemplate the Wonders of Cities and the Marvels of Traveling .

“I arrived at length at Cairo, mother of cities and seat of Pharaoh the tyrant, mistress of broad regions and fruitful lands, boundless in multitude of buildings, peerless in beauty and splendour, the meeting-place of comer and goer, the halting-place of feeble and mighty, whose throngs surge as the waves of the sea, and can scarce be contained in her for all her size and capacity.” – Ibn Battuta, Travels in Asia and Africa (Rehalã of Ibn Battûta)

Early Life and Pilgrimage to Mecca

All that is known about Ibn Battuta’s life comes from the autobiographical information included in the account of his travels, which records that he was of Berber descent, born into a family of Islamic legal scholars in Tangier , Morocco, on 25 February 1304, during the reign of the Marinid dynasty .  At the age of 21, Battūta went on a Muslim pilgrimage to Mecca . This took place by land along the North African coast until Battūta reached Cairo via Alexandria . Here he was on relatively safe Mamluk territory and made his first detour from the path. At that time there were three common stages: a trip up the Nile, then east to the port city of Aidhab on the Red Sea. But there he had to turn back because of a local uprising. Back in Cairo, he made a second detour to Damascus (also under Mamluk control at that time), having previously met a “holy man” who had prophesied that he would reach Mecca only after a journey through Syria. Another advantage of his detour was that other holy places were along the way – such as Hebron , Jerusalem and Bethlehem – and the Mamluk authorities made special efforts to secure this pilgrimage route.

Along the Silk Road

After spending the month of fasting Ramadan in Damascus, Ibn Battuta joined a caravan that made the journey from Damascus to Medina , the burial place of the Prophet Mohammed. In order to keep up his strength, Battuta ate the young of his camel, as he could not use offspring. After four days there, he traveled on to Mecca. He completed the rituals necessary to attain his new status as a hadj, and now he had his way home. After a short consideration he decided to continue his journey. His next destination was the empire of the Mongolian Ilkhane , which lies in the territory of today’s Iran/Iraq. He again joined a caravan and crossed with it the border to Mesopotamia, where he visited Najaf , the burial place of the fourth Caliph Ali. From here he travelled to Basra , then to Isfahan , which was to be almost completely destroyed only a few decades later by the Turkmen conqueror Timur . Ibn Battuta’s next stops were Shiraz and Baghdad , which was in poor condition after it was taken by Hülegü.

Along the Coast of Africa

After this journey Ibn Battuta returned to Mecca with a second hadj and lived there for a year, before embarking on a second great journey, this time down the Red Sea along the East African coast. His first major stop was Aden , where he planned to make a fortune by trading goods that came to the Arabian Peninsula from the Indian Ocean. Before he put these plans into action, he decided to embark on one last adventure, and in the spring of 1331 he volunteered for a journey south along the African coast. He spent about one week each in Ethiopia, Mogadishu, Mombasa, Zanzibar , Kilwa and other places. With the change of the monsoon wind his ship returned to South Arabia. After completing this last journey before settling down, he decided to visit Oman and the Strait of Hormus directly.

Ibn Battuta Itinerary 1325-1332 (North Africa, Iraq, Persia, the Arabian Peninsula, Somalia, Swahili Coast)

From Mecca to Dehli

He then travelled once again to Mecca, where he spent another year and then decided to seek employment with the Muslim Sultan of Delhi . To find a guide and translator for his journey, he went to Anatolia, which was under the control of the Seljuk Turks, and joined a caravan to India. A sea voyage from Damascus on a Genoese ship brought him to Alanya on the south coast of what is now Turkey. From there he travelled overland to Konya and Sinope on the Black Sea coast. He crossed the Black Sea and landed at Kaffa in Crimea, entering the territory of the Golden Horde. On his journey through the country, he happened to meet the caravan of Özbeg , the khan of the Golden Horde, and joined its journey, which took him along the Volga to Astrakhan . Arriving in Astrakhan, the Khan allowed one of his wives, who was pregnant, to have her child in her home town – Constantinople. It is not surprising that Ibn Battuta persuaded the Khan to let him take part in this journey – the first to take him beyond the borders of the Islamic world.

On to the Maldives and towards China

The Sultanate of Delhi had become Islamic only shortly before, and the Sultan wanted to employ as many Islamic scholars and officials as possible to strengthen his power. Due to Ibn Battuta’s studies in Mecca, he was appointed as Qādī (“Judge”) by Sultan Muhammad bin Tughluq. On the way to the coast his travel group was attacked by Hindu rebels – he was separated from his companions, robbed and almost killed. Nevertheless, after two days he caught up with his group and continued his journey to Cambay . From there he sailed to Calicut in southwest India. He decided to continue his journey to the Empire of China, but right at the beginning with a detour via the Maldives. He stayed on the archipelago for much more time than intended, namely nine months. He turned to Ceylon to visit the religious sanctuary of Sri Pada (Adam’s Peak). When he set sail from Ceylon, his ship almost sank in a storm – after another ship saved him, it was attacked by pirates. Stranded on the shore, Ibn Battuta once again made his way to Calicut, from where he sailed back to the Maldives before trying again to reach China aboard a Chinese junk. This time the attempt was successful – he quickly reached Chittagong, Sumatra, Vietnam and finally Quanzhou in Fujian province. From there he turned north towards Hangzhou, not far from today’s Shanghai. Ibn Battuta also claimed to have travelled even further north, through the Great Canal (Da Yunhe) to Beijing , but this is generally considered an invention.

Ibn Battuta Itinerary 1332-1346 (Black Sea Region, Central Asia, India, South East Asia and China)

Back to Mecca and the Plague

On his return to Quanzhou Ibn Battuta decided to return home – although he did not really know where his home was. Back in Calicut, India, he briefly considered surrendering to the grace of Sultan Muhammad bin Tughluq, but changed his mind and returned to Mecca. When he arrived in Damascus to make his first pilgrimage to Mecca, he learned of his father’s death.  The death continued to be his companion that year, because the plague had broken out and Ibn Battuta witnessed the spread of the Black Death over Syria, Palestine and Arabia.  After reaching Mecca, he decided to return to Morocco, almost a quarter of a century after his departure from there.  On his way home, he made a final detour via Sardinia and then returned to Tangiers – only to learn that his mother had also died a few months earlier.

El Andalus and back to North Africa

But even in Tangier he did not stay long – he set off for Al-Andalus – the Islamic Spain. Alfonso XI of Castile threatened to conquer Gibraltar , and Ibn Battuta left Tangier together with a group of Muslims – with the intention of defending the port city. When he arrived there, Alfonso had fallen victim to the plague and Gibraltar was no longer threatened; Ibn Battuta continued his journey for pleasure. He travelled through Valencia and reached Granada. A part of the Islamic world that Ibn Battuta had never explored was Morocco itself. On his return from Spain, he made a short stop in Marrakech, which had almost died out after the plague epidemic and the capital’s move to Fez. In the autumn of 1351, Ibn Battuta left Fez and a week later reached Sijilmasa , the last Moroccan city on his route. He joined one of the first winter caravans a few months later, and a month later he found himself in the middle of the Sahara in the city of Taghaza . A centre of the salt trade, it was flooded with salt and Malian gold – yet the treeless city did not make a favourable impression on Ibn Battuta. He travelled 500 kilometres further through the worst part of the desert to Oualata , then part of the Mali empire, now Mauritania.

Ibn Battuta Itinerary 1349-1354 (North Africa, Spain and West Africa)

Retirement and Travellog

On his onward journey to the southwest he thought he was on the Nile (in fact it was the Niger) until he reached the capital of the Malian Empire. There he met Mansa Suleyman, who had been king since 1341. Although he was suspicious of his stingy hospitality, Ibn Battuta stayed there for eight months before heading down the Niger to Timbuktu . At the end of December 1353 he returned to Morocco from this last journey. At the instigation of the Sultan Abū Inān Fāris Ibn Battuta dictated his travel experiences to the poet Mohammed Ibn Dschuzaj (died 1357), who elaborately embellished the simple prose style of Ibn Battuta and provided it with poetic additions. Although some of the places in the resulting work “Rihla” ( A Gift to Those Who Contemplate the Wonders of Cities and the Marvels of Traveling ) were obviously the product of his imagination, it is one of the most accurate existing descriptions of some parts of the world in the 14th century.  He travelled more than any other explorer in distance, totaling around 117,000 km, surpassing Zheng He  with about 50,000 km and Marco Polo  with 12,000 km.[ 4 ]

After he published “ Rihla “, Ibn Battuta lived in his homeland for 22 years, until he died in 1368 or 1377. You can learn more about Ibn Battuta in the video lecture of Paul Cobb, Professor, Islamic History, University of Pennsylvania presenting Traveler’s Tips from the 14th Century: The Detours of Ibn Battuta.  The 14th century offered a different world of travel than the one that confronts us today—or did it? What advice can Ibn Battuta provide the globe-trotting public of the 21st century?

References and Further Reading:

• [1] Ibn Battuta,  Travels In Asia And Africa 1325–1354  — Gibb’s 1929 translation from the  Internet Archive
• [2]  The Longest Hajj: The Journeys of Ibn Battuta  —  Saudi Aramco World  article by Douglas Bullis (July/August 2000).
• [3]  Works by Ibn Battuta  at  LibriVox  
• [4]  Marco Polo – The Great Traveler and Merchant , SciHi Blog
• [5] Paul Cobb,  Great Voyages: Traveler’s Tips from the 14th Century: The Detours of Ibn Battuta
• [6] Ibn Battuta at Wikidata
• [7] Paul Cobb,  Great Voyages: Traveler’s Tips from the 14th Century: The Detours of Ibn Battuta , Penn Museum @ youtube
• [8] Timeline of Medieval Travel Writers , via DBpedia and Wikidata

Harald Sack

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Why Moroccan Scholar Ibn Battuta May Be the Greatest Explorer of all Time

By: Evan Andrews

Updated: September 11, 2023 | Original: July 20, 2017

The title of “history’s most famous traveler” usually goes to Marco Polo, the great Venetian wayfarer who visited China in the 13th century. For sheer distance covered, however, Polo trails far behind the Muslim scholar Ibn Battuta. Though little known outside the Islamic world, Battuta spent half his life tramping across vast swaths of the Eastern Hemisphere.

Moving by sea, by camel caravan and on foot, he ventured into over 40 modern day nations, often putting himself in extreme danger just to satisfy his wanderlust. When he finally returned home after 29 years, he recorded his escapades in a hulking travelogue known as the Rihla . Though modern scholars often question the veracity of Battuta's writings—he may never have visited China, for example, and many of his accounts of foreign lands appear to have been plagiarized from other authors' works—the Rihla is a fascinating look into the world of a 14th-century vagabond.

Born in Tangier, Morocco, Ibn Battuta came of age in a family of Islamic judges. In 1325, at age 21, he left his homeland for the Middle East. He intended to complete his hajj—the Muslim pilgrimage to the holy city of Mecca—but he also wished to study Islamic law along the way. “I set out alone,” he later remembered, “having neither fellow-traveler in whose companionship I might find cheer, nor caravan whose party I might join, but swayed by an overmastering impulse within me and a desire long-cherished in my bosom to visit these illustrious sanctuaries.”

Battuta began his journey riding solo on a donkey, but soon linked up with a pilgrim caravan as it snaked its way east across North Africa. The route was rugged and bandit infested, and the young traveler soon developed a fever so severe that he was forced to tie himself to his saddle to avoid collapsing. Nevertheless, he still found time during one stopover to wed a young woman—the first of some 10 wives he would eventually marry and then divorce during his travels.

In Egypt, Battuta studied Islamic law and toured Alexandria and the metropolis of Cairo, which he called “peerless in beauty and splendor.” He then continued on to Mecca, where he took part in the hajj. His travels might have ended there, but having completed his pilgrimage, he decided to continue wandering the Muslim world, or “Dar al-Islam.” Battuta claimed to be driven by a dream in which a large bird took him on its wing and “made a long flight towards the east…and left me there.” A holy man had interpreted the dream to mean that Battuta would roam across the earth, and the young Moroccan intended to fulfill the prophecy.

Battuta’s next few years were a whirlwind of travel. He joined a caravan and toured Persia and Iraq, and later ventured north to what is now Azerbaijan. Following a sojourn in Mecca, he trekked across Yemen and made a sea voyage to the Horn of Africa. From there, he visited the Somali city of Mogadishu before dipping below the equator and exploring the coasts of Kenya and Tanzania.

Upon leaving Africa, Battuta hatched a plan to travel to India, where he hoped to secure a lucrative post as a “qadi,” or Islamic judge. He followed a winding route east, first cutting through Egypt and Syria before sailing for Turkey. As he always did in Muslim-controlled lands, he relied on his status as an Islamic scholar to win hospitality from locals. At many points in his travels, he was showered with gifts of fine clothes, horses and even concubines and slaves.

From Turkey, Battuta crossed the Black Sea and entered the domain of a Golden Horde Khan known as Uzbeg. He was welcomed at Uzbeg’s court, and later accompanied one of the Khan’s wives to Constantinople. Battuta stayed in the Byzantine city for a month, visiting the Hagia Sophia and even receiving a brief audience with the emperor. Having never ventured to a large non-Muslim city, he was stunned by the “almost innumerable” collection of Christian churches within its walls.

Battuta next traveled east across the Eurasian steppe before entering India via Afghanistan and the Hindu Kush. Arriving in the city of Delhi in 1334, he won employment as a judge under Muhammad Tughluq, a powerful Islamic sultan. Battuta passed several years in the cushy job and even married and fathered children, but he eventually grew wary of the mercurial sultan, who was known to maim and kill his enemies—sometimes by tossing them to elephants with swords attached to their tusks. A chance to escape finally presented itself in 1341, when the sultan selected Battuta as his envoy to the Mongol court of China. Still thirsty for adventure, the Moroccan set out at the head of a large caravan brimming with gifts and slaves.

The trip to the Orient would prove to be the most harrowing chapter of Battuta’s odyssey. Hindu rebels harassed his group during their journey to the Indian coast, and Battuta was later kidnapped and robbed of everything but his pants. He managed to make it to the port of Calicut, but on the eve of an ocean voyage, his ships blew out to sea in a storm and sank, killing many in his party.

The string of disasters left Battuta stranded and disgraced. He was loath to return to Delhi and face the sultan, however, so he elected to make a sea voyage south to the Indian Ocean archipelago of the Maldives. He remained in the idyllic islands for the next year, gorging on coconuts, taking several wives and once again serving as an Islamic judge. Battuta might have stayed in the Maldives even longer, but following a falling out with its rulers, he resumed his journey to China. After making a stopover in Sri Lanka, he rode merchant vessels through Southeast Asia. In 1345, four years after first leaving India, he arrived at the bustling Chinese port of Quanzhou.

Battuta described Mongol China as “the safest and best country for the traveler” and praised its natural beauty, but he also branded its inhabitants “pagans” and “infidels.” Distressed by the unfamiliar customs on display, the pious traveler stuck close to the country’s Muslim communities and offered only vague accounts of metropolises such as Hangzhou, which he called “the biggest city I have seen on the face of the earth.” Historians still debate just how far he went, but he claimed to have roamed as far north as Beijing and crossed through the famous Grand Canal.

China marked the beginning of the end of Battuta’s travels. Having reached the edge of the known world, he finally turned around and journeyed home to Morocco, arriving back in Tangier in 1349. Both of Battuta’s parents had died by then, so he only remained for a short while before making a jaunt to Spain. He then embarked on a multi-year excursion across the Sahara to the Mali Empire, where he visited Timbuktu.

Battuta had never kept journals during his adventures, but when he returned to Morocco for good in 1354, the country’s sultan ordered him to compile a travelogue. He spent the next year dictating his story to a writer named Ibn Juzayy. The result was an oral history called A Gift to Those Who Contemplate the Wonders of Cities and the Marvels of Traveling , better known as the Rihla  (or “travels”). Though not particularly popular in its day, the book now stands as one of the most vivid and wide-ranging accounts of the 14th century Islamic world.

Following the completion of the Rihla , Ibn Battuta all but vanished from the historical record. He is believed to have worked as a judge in Morocco and died sometime around 1368, but little else is known about him. It appears that after a lifetime spent on the road, the great wanderer was finally content to stay in one place.

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The Travels of Ibn Battutah: Jerusalem (and his stop in Bethlehem along the way)

In his travel narrative, Ibn Battutah describes visiting the city of Jerusalem in 1326 during his pilgrimage to the Holy Mecca. Both during the trek to Jerusalem, which includes a stop in Bethlehem, as well as his week-long stay in the city, Battutah describes the religious monuments he sees and the different ways in which the Islamic and Christian faith perceive the monuments. In this section, the narrator shows his knowledge and devotion to the Islamic faith in a detailed, reverent way that reinforces the general purpose of his pilgrimage to Mecca.

Although the main purpose of Battutah’s journey is to reach Mecca, his detour to Jerusalem shows the ways in which medieval travelers would take advantage of their journey and see as many significant locations as possible. Battutah stops in Bethlehem while traveling via caravan from Ghazza to Jerusalem so that he can see the birthplace of Jesus. This event takes less than a day and does not contribute to Battutah’s main goal of reaching Mecca, but it shows that he is willing to take the time and energy to engage in meaningful, religious experiences whenever possible. Battutah even acknowledges that Jerusalem does not hold the same significance as Mecca, calling it “third in excellence after the two sacred mosques of Mecca… and the place of ascension of the Apostle of God” (26). Although it is not Mecca, Battutah chooses to make the most of his long pilgrimage and takes time to appreciate Jerusalem for what it’s worth. Visiting these smaller, but still important, cities and monuments throughout the pilgrimage shows that it is not only the final destination, but also the journey, that holds significance. Pilgrimages exist as a way to search for spiritual meaning and purpose, which cannot occur unless the journey is emphasized as much as the destination.

Once in the city, Battutah focuses on the physical beauty of religious structures and monuments. His specific word choice praises the creators of the structures in addition to the structures themselves. He claims that the roof of a particularly spectacular mosque shows “the utmost perfection of architecture and skill in execution” while the monument The Dome of the Rock shows “excellent workmanship…and such brilliance of execution as to defy description” (27). Referencing the execution and workmanship of these beautiful buildings shows that Battutah respects not only the monuments and their spiritual significance, but also the laborers who made these feats possible. Battutah does not ignore or take for granted the work of other people, and instead highly praises it. He does not let his religious status get in the way of his spiritual obligations, so he remains mindful and modest when regarding the work of others.

Throughout this section of his narrative, Battutah references several overlaps between the Christian and Islamic faith. He notes that both religions recognize Bethlehem as the birthplace of Jesus, and that they both have religious monuments in Jerusalem regarding the ascension of religious figures. Battutah does not describe the Christian beliefs in a negative way, but he still claims that the Christian faith “lies and persuades” its followers to believe in untrue sentiments. (28). It is surprising how Battutah acknowledges the differences in Christian and Islamic faith, claiming his faith as superior, without attacking Christianity. Other religious travelers of the time negatively looked upon foreigners or those with different religious beliefs, but Battutah does not engage in this practice. Once again, this shows that he not only promotes, but also practices, the notions of respect and kindness within the Islamic faith. 

Ibn-Baṭṭūṭa Muḥammad Ibn-ʿAbdallāh, and Tim Mackintosh-Smith. The Travels of Ibn Battutah . Translated by Gibb Hamilton Alexander Rosskeen, Picador, 2002.

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Muslim Traveling Judge

The abode of islam.

I set out alone, having neither fellow-traveler in whose companionship I might find cheer, nor caravan whose party I might join, but swayed by an overmastering impulse within me and a desire long-cherished in my bosom to visit these illustrious sanctuaries. So I braced my resolution to quit all my dear ones, female and male, and forsook my home as birds forsake their nests. My parents being yet in the bonds of life, it weighed sorely upon me to part from them, and both they and I were afflicted with sorrow at this separation. — from The Travels of Ibn Battutah

It is easy to marry in these islands because of the smallness of the dowries and the pleasures of society which the women offer... When the ships put in, the crew marry; when they intend to leave they divorce their wives. This is a kind of temporary marriage. The women of these islands never leave their country.

China was beautiful, but it did not please me. On the contrary, I was greatly troubled thinking about the way paganism dominated this country. Whenever I went out of my lodging, I saw many blameworthy things. That disturbed me so much that I stayed indoors most of the time and only went out when necessary. During my stay in China, whenever I saw any Muslims I always felt as though I were meeting my own family and close kinsmen.

His writing and his last years

The legacy of ibn battuta’s travels, for further discussion, want to join the conversation.

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The Ages of Exploration

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Ibn Battuta travels took him through much of the Islamic world, Africa, and into many parts of the east, including Central and Southeast Asia, India, and China.

Click on the world map to view an example of the explorer’s voyage.

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Dubai to Abu Dhabi airport: Skip traffic and taxis with a 24/7 shuttle bus!

Living in uae.

Direct route to Zayed International Airport with hourly departures at an affordable rate.

Dubai: Booked a flight from Abu Dhabi but live in Dubai? If you are struggling with finding convenient transportation options to Zayed International Airport, take advantage of the airport’s convenient 24/7 shuttle bus service.

Direct route, no stops

The hourly express bus service takes shuttles between Dubai and Zayed International Airport, without any stops. To board the bus, you can book a ticket in advance online or buy them from the airport.

24/7 flexibility - the shuttle operates around the clock, offering departures every hour for maximum convenience, regardless of your arrival or departure time.

Where is the airport shuttle bus located?

Dubai: The bus departs every hour from Ibn Battuta Bus Station near the Ibn Battuta Metro Station (Red Line) and the Ibn Battuta Mall. The shuttle bus will drop passengers at the Zayed International Airport Departures section.

How to book Abu Dhabi Airport shuttle bus tickets

Here's how to secure your spot on the convenient 24/7 shuttle bus with just a few clicks: 1. Head to the official website – visit the Zayed International Airport website: www.zayedinternationalairport.ae/en/Transport/Airport-shuttle and click the ‘Book’ button under the Airport Shuttle section. 2. Choose your route and date – select whether you are travelling from Dubai to Zayed International Airport or vice versa. Then, enter your travel date. Click the ‘Book Now’ button to proceed. 3. Fill in passenger details – enter your full name. You also have the option to add additional passengers travelling with you. 4. Provide your email – fill in your email address for ticket delivery. 5. Secure your ticket – enter your credit or debit card details to pay for the shuttle bus fare.

Once your payment is confirmed, you will receive a digital ticket directly to your email address. You must present it when boarding the bus.

Cost - Dh35 per person (one-way ticket).

Abu Dhabi Airport shuttle bus timings:

To zayed international airport.

Departure from Ibn Battuta Bus Station: • 00:00 • 01:00 • 02:00 • 03:00 • 04:00 • 05:00 • 06:00 • 07:00 • 08:00 • 09:00 • 10:00 • 11:00 • 12:00 • 13:00 • 14:00 • 15:00 • 16:00 • 17:00 • 18:00 • 19:00 • 20:00 • 21:00 • 22:00 • 23:00

Arrival at Zayed International Airport: • 01:30 • 02:30 • 03:30 • 04:30 • 05:30 • 06:30 • 07:30 • 08:30 • 09:30 • 10:30 • 11:30 • 12:30 • 13:30 • 14:30 • 15:30 • 16:30 • 17:30 • 18:30 • 19:30 • 20:30 • 21:30 • 22:30 • 23:30 • 00:30

Departs Zayed International Airport - outside Arrivals:

Departure • 01:00 • 02:00 • 03:00 • 04:00 • 05:00 • 06:00 • 07:00 • 08:00 • 09:00 • 10:00 • 11:00 • 12:00 • 13:00 • 14:00 • 15:00 • 16:00 • 17:00 • 18:00 • 19:00 • 20:00 • 21:00 • 22:00 • 23:00

Arrival at Ibn Battuta: • 01:30 • 02:30 • 03:30 • 04:30 • 05:30 • 06:30 • 07:30 • 08:30 • 09:30 • 10:30 • 11:30 • 12:30 • 13:30 • 14:30 • 15:30 • 16:30 • 17:30 • 18:30 • 19:30 • 20:30 • 21:30 • 22:30 • 23:30 • 00:30

Are there RTA buses that travel to Zayed International Airport?

Dubai's Roads and Transport Authority (RTA) also provides an intercity bus - route E102 to Zayed International Airport from Al Jafiliya and Ibn Battuta Station for Dh25 (one-way) using your nol card. However, RTA buses operate from 4am to 1am (the next day) .

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The Moscow Metro Museum of Art: 10 Must-See Stations

There are few times one can claim having been on the subway all afternoon and loving it, but the Moscow Metro provides just that opportunity.  While many cities boast famous public transport systems—New York’s subway, London’s underground, San Salvador’s chicken buses—few warrant hours of exploration.  Moscow is different: Take one ride on the Metro, and you’ll find out that this network of railways can be so much more than point A to B drudgery.

The Metro began operating in 1935 with just thirteen stations, covering less than seven miles, but it has since grown into the world’s third busiest transit system ( Tokyo is first ), spanning about 200 miles and offering over 180 stops along the way.  The construction of the Metro began under Joseph Stalin’s command, and being one of the USSR’s most ambitious building projects, the iron-fisted leader instructed designers to create a place full of svet (radiance) and svetloe budushchee (a radiant future), a palace for the people and a tribute to the Mother nation.

Consequently, the Metro is among the most memorable attractions in Moscow.  The stations provide a unique collection of public art, comparable to anything the city’s galleries have to offer and providing a sense of the Soviet era, which is absent from the State National History Museum.  Even better, touring the Metro delivers palpable, experiential moments, which many of us don’t get standing in front of painting or a case of coins.

Though tours are available , discovering the Moscow Metro on your own provides a much more comprehensive, truer experience, something much less sterile than following a guide.  What better place is there to see the “real” Moscow than on mass transit: A few hours will expose you to characters and caricatures you’ll be hard-pressed to find dining near the Bolshoi Theater.  You become part of the attraction, hear it in the screech of the train, feel it as hurried commuters brush by: The Metro sucks you beneath the city and churns you into the mix.

With the recommendations of our born-and-bred Muscovite students, my wife Emma and I have just taken a self-guided tour of what some locals consider the top ten stations of the Moscow Metro. What most satisfied me about our Metro tour was the sense of adventure .  I loved following our route on the maps of the wagon walls as we circled the city, plotting out the course to the subsequent stops; having the weird sensation of being underground for nearly four hours; and discovering the next cavern of treasures, playing Indiana Jones for the afternoon, piecing together fragments of Russia’s mysterious history.  It’s the ultimate interactive museum.

Top Ten Stations (In order of appearance)

Kievskaya station.

Kievskaya Station went public in March of 1937, the rails between it and Park Kultury Station being the first to cross the Moscow River.  Kievskaya is full of mosaics depicting aristocratic scenes of Russian life, with great cameo appearances by Lenin, Trotsky, and Stalin.  Each work has a Cyrillic title/explanation etched in the marble beneath it; however, if your Russian is rusty, you can just appreciate seeing familiar revolutionary dates like 1905 ( the Russian Revolution ) and 1917 ( the October Revolution ).

Mayakovskaya Station

Mayakovskaya Station ranks in my top three most notable Metro stations. Mayakovskaya just feels right, done Art Deco but no sense of gaudiness or pretention.  The arches are adorned with rounded chrome piping and create feeling of being in a jukebox, but the roof’s expansive mosaics of the sky are the real showstopper.  Subjects cleverly range from looking up at a high jumper, workers atop a building, spires of Orthodox cathedrals, to nimble aircraft humming by, a fleet of prop planes spelling out CCCP in the bluest of skies.

Novoslobodskaya Station

Novoslobodskaya is the Metro’s unique stained glass station.  Each column has its own distinctive panels of colorful glass, most of them with a floral theme, some of them capturing the odd sailor, musician, artist, gardener, or stenographer in action.  The glass is framed in Art Deco metalwork, and there is the lovely aspect of discovering panels in the less frequented haunches of the hall (on the trackside, between the incoming staircases).  Novosblod is, I’ve been told, the favorite amongst out-of-town visitors.

Komsomolskaya Station

Komsomolskaya Station is one of palatial grandeur.  It seems both magnificent and obligatory, like the presidential palace of a colonial city.  The yellow ceiling has leafy, white concrete garland and a series of golden military mosaics accenting the tile mosaics of glorified Russian life.  Switching lines here, the hallway has an Alice-in-Wonderland feel, impossibly long with decorative tile walls, culminating in a very old station left in a remarkable state of disrepair, offering a really tangible glimpse behind the palace walls.

Dostoevskaya Station

Dostoevskaya is a tribute to the late, great hero of Russian literature .  The station at first glance seems bare and unimpressive, a stark marble platform without a whiff of reassembled chips of tile.  However, two columns have eerie stone inlay collages of scenes from Dostoevsky’s work, including The Idiot , The Brothers Karamazov , and Crime and Punishment.   Then, standing at the center of the platform, the marble creates a kaleidoscope of reflections.  At the entrance, there is a large, inlay portrait of the author.

Chkalovskaya Station

Chkalovskaya does space Art Deco style (yet again).  Chrome borders all.  Passageways with curvy overhangs create the illusion of walking through the belly of a chic, new-age spacecraft.  There are two (kos)mosaics, one at each end, with planetary subjects.  Transferring here brings you above ground, where some rather elaborate metalwork is on display.  By name similarity only, I’d expected Komsolskaya Station to deliver some kosmonaut décor; instead, it was Chkalovskaya that took us up to the space station.

Elektrozavodskaya Station

Elektrozavodskaya is full of marble reliefs of workers, men and women, laboring through the different stages of industry.  The superhuman figures are round with muscles, Hollywood fit, and seemingly undeterred by each Herculean task they respectively perform.  The station is chocked with brass, from hammer and sickle light fixtures to beautiful, angular framework up the innards of the columns.  The station’s art pieces are less clever or extravagant than others, but identifying the different stages of industry is entertaining.

Baumanskaya Statio

Baumanskaya Station is the only stop that wasn’t suggested by the students.  Pulling in, the network of statues was just too enticing: Out of half-circle depressions in the platform’s columns, the USSR’s proud and powerful labor force again flaunts its success.  Pilots, blacksmiths, politicians, and artists have all congregated, posing amongst more Art Deco framing.  At the far end, a massive Soviet flag dons the face of Lenin and banners for ’05, ’17, and ‘45.  Standing in front of the flag, you can play with the echoing roof.

Ploshchad Revolutsii Station

Novokuznetskaya Station

Novokuznetskaya Station finishes off this tour, more or less, where it started: beautiful mosaics.  This station recalls the skyward-facing pieces from Mayakovskaya (Station #2), only with a little larger pictures in a more cramped, very trafficked area.  Due to a line of street lamps in the center of the platform, it has the atmosphere of a bustling market.  The more inventive sky scenes include a man on a ladder, women picking fruit, and a tank-dozer being craned in.  The station’s also has a handsome black-and-white stone mural.

Here is a map and a brief description of our route:

Start at (1)Kievskaya on the “ring line” (look for the squares at the bottom of the platform signs to help you navigate—the ring line is #5, brown line) and go north to Belorusskaya, make a quick switch to the Dark Green/#2 line, and go south one stop to (2)Mayakovskaya.  Backtrack to the ring line—Brown/#5—and continue north, getting off at (3)Novosblodskaya and (4)Komsolskaya.  At Komsolskaya Station, transfer to the Red/#1 line, go south for two stops to Chistye Prudy, and get on the Light Green/#10 line going north.  Take a look at (5)Dostoevskaya Station on the northern segment of Light Green/#10 line then change directions and head south to (6)Chkalovskaya, which offers a transfer to the Dark Blue/#3 line, going west, away from the city center.  Have a look (7)Elektroskaya Station before backtracking into the center of Moscow, stopping off at (8)Baumskaya, getting off the Dark Blue/#3 line at (9)Ploschad Revolyutsii.  Change to the Dark Green/#2 line and go south one stop to see (10)Novokuznetskaya Station.

Check out our new Moscow Indie Travel Guide , book a flight to Moscow and read 10 Bars with Views Worth Blowing the Budget For

Jonathon Engels, formerly a patron saint of misadventure, has been stumbling his way across cultural borders since 2005 and is currently volunteering in the mountains outside of Antigua, Guatemala.  For more of his work, visit his website and blog .

Photo credits:   SergeyRod , all others courtesy of the author and may not be used without permission

Journey to Mali: 1350 - 1351

"[The sultan] has a lofty pavilion ... where he sits most of the time... There came forth from the gate of the palace about 300 slaves, some carrying in their hands bows and others having in their hands short lances and shields... Then two saddled and bridled horses are brought, with two rams which, they say, are effective against the evil eye... The interpreter stands at the gate of the council-place wearing fine garments of silk... and on his head a turban with fringes which they have a novel way of winding..." [Dunn, p. 302]

The Allure of Mali

When Ibn Battuta first visited Cairo in 1326, he undoubtedly heard about the visit of Mansa Musa (King of Mali from 1307 to 1332). Mansa Musa had passed through the city two years earlier making his pilgrimage to Mecca with thousands of slaves and soldiers, wives and officials. One hundred camels each carried one hundred pounds of gold. Mansa Musa performed many acts of charity and "flooded Cairo with his kindness." So much gold spent in the markets of Cairo actually upset the gold market well into the next century. Mali's gold was important all over the world. In the later Medieval period, West Africa may have been producing almost two-thirds of the world's supply of gold! Mali also supplied other trade items - ivory, ostrich feathers, kola nuts, hides, and slaves. No wonder there was talk about the Kingdom of Mali and its riches! And no wonder Ibn Battuta, still restless after his trip to Al-Andalus, set his mind on visiting the sub-Saharan kingdom.

This is a small section of a famous map known as the Catalan Atlas, produced in 1375. The Atlas is attributed to Abraham Cresques, a Jewish book illuminator and map-maker. The original version is housed at the  Bibliothèque Nationale de France , but this image is a clip from a website that hosts very high-definition images of the map panels.

Since this map was made in 1375, it did not exist yet when Ibn Battuta went to Mali. However, the inclusion of Mansa Musa on the map (shown sitting on a throne, with gold accessories) suggests that the legends of his wealth and power continued well after Ibn Battuta's time.

A trip to Mali, like all other trips, would be made easier because of already established trade routes controlled by Muslims. The rulers and many businessmen of Mali had converted to Islam a generation before and Muslim traders had come to live in Mali's business centers. Ibn Battuta could not resist another trip before he settled down. Or perhaps he thought about settling in Mali where the converts and Muslim settlers and even the king (sultan) were hungry for Islamic education and law. Mansa Musa had built mosques and minarets and established Friday prayer-days in Mali. He had brought judges to his country and became a student of religion, himself. Perhaps Ibn Battuta was looking for a job in the circle of rulers in Mali. This trip would take him 1,500 miles across a fearsome desert.

An image from the Draa River Valley, on the northern edge of the Sahara Desert.

Source:  Theoliane - Own work , Public Domain

Azalai salt caravan, December 1985.

Source:  Holger Reineccius at the German language Wikipedia , CC BY-SA 3.0 .

Crossing the Sahara

Ibn Battuta set out from Fez in the autumn of 1351 and crossed the Atlas Mountains. After traveling for eight or nine days he arrived at a town called Sijilmasa on the Oasis of Tafilalt. This was the last outpost before crossing the vast Sahara Desert. Here he spent four months waiting for the winter season when the great caravans could cross the desert. It was here where he bought camels of his own while staying with Muslims who offered him hospitality.

And so he set out across the Sahara Desert for Walata in a camel caravan in February, 1352. They traveled in the early morning and late afternoon and rested under awnings to avoid the scorching midday heat. Twenty-five days later the caravan reached the settlement of Taghaza, the main salt-mining center of the Western Sahara. Here workers loaded great slabs of salt which was in great demand in Mali. Taghaza was a desolate place. "This is a village with nothing good about it," complained Ibn Battuta. "It is the most fly-ridden of places." Then he described the huge amounts of gold that changed hands there.

The caravan stayed in Taghaza for ten days where he stayed in a house built entirely of salt except for the camel skin roof! The water was salty, too, and food had to be brought from the outside.

Then began the most dangerous part of the journey - almost 500 miles of sand where only one water place exists. Fortunately there had been some rainfall that year, so there was some scattered vegetation and occasionally even pools of water for the camels. The travelers drank water from goat skin bags. Yet there were more dangers:

"In those days we used to go on ahead of the caravan and whenever we found a place suitable for grazing we pastured the beasts there. This we continued to do till a man ... became lost in the desert. After that we neither went on ahead nor lagged behind."

Ibn Battuta worried about running out of water, about his guides losing their way, and about falling prey to the "demons which haunted those wastes." In the end of April, they arrived in Walata, on the edge of the desert -- a sweltering little town with mud brick houses next to barren hills and with a few palm trees. Ibn Battuta regretted coming at all to this town because he had been treated so much better in other parts of the Islamic world. He resented the governor who offered the visitors a bowl of millet with a little honey and yogurt as a welcoming meal.

"I said to them: 'Was it to this that the black man invited us?' They said: 'Yes, for them this is a great banquet.' Then I knew for certain that no good was to be expected from them and I wished to depart."

He stayed in Walata for several weeks, but as happened in other places on his journey, he took offense at the local customs. After all, he must have thought, he was a special visitor that should be pampered. And even more offensive were the local customs that Ibn Battuta thought were not appropriate for good Muslims.

For example, he expected the sexes to be separated in an Islamic society. On one occasion he entered in a qadi's (judge's) house only to find a young and beautiful woman there to greet him. She was the judge's friend! (Ibn Battuta considered her presence there highly inappropriate). On another occasion Ibn Battuta called on a scholar and found the man's wife chatting with a strange man in the courtyard. Ibn Battuta expressed his disapproval and the man answered,

"The association of women with men is agreeable to us and a part of good manners, to which no suspicion attaches. They are not like the women of your country."

Needless to say, Ibn Battuta considered the local customs inferior to his own. This was not the first time Ibn Battuta took issue with the behavior of local women.

South into the Sahel and Savannah

The travelers went southward away from the desert and into the sahel (the arid country between the sandy desert in the north and grassy savannah to the south) along the Niger River to the king's palaces. Along the way he offered glass beads and pieces of salt in return for millet, rice, chickens, and other local foods. After two or more weeks on the road, he arrived at the seat of government, a town with several palaces for Mansa Sulayman, younger brother of Mansa Musa who had died. (Sulayman ruled from 1341 to 1360). The main palace was built by a Muslim architect from al-Andalus (Muslim Spain) and was covered with plaster painted with colorful patterns, a "most elegant" building. Surrounding the palaces and mosques were the residences of the citizens: mud-walled houses roofed with domes of timber and reed.

Ibn Battuta followed the Niger River to several of Mali's biggest cities.  He rode in a boat such as this. 

The sahel forest in Mali during the rainy season.

Source: NOAA, US Gov, Public Domain

What did Ibn Battuta eat in West Africa?

Ibn Battuta complained about being given millet porridge with a little honey and yogurt by a host. He mentions eating camel meat along the way, and trading glass beads and salt for millet, rice, milk, chickens, fish, melons and pumpkins, and other local foods. He got sick from eating yams (or a similar root). From the king, he received a welcoming gift of three loaves of bread and a piece of beef fried in shea butter, and a gourd containing yogurt. (He was insulted by this meager gift, too.)

Ibn Battuta described the fruit of the baobab tree: "like a cucumber, when it ripens it bursts uncovering something like flour; they cook and eat it and it is sold in the markets." (Actually, the women pound it into a flour - it doesn't just turn into flour spontaneously). He also told of a ground crop like beans that was fried which tastes like peas, or made into a flour and fried in 'shea butter'. [Hamdun & King, Ibn Battuta in Black Africa, p. 40.]

On his way back home from Mali, he tells of some Berbers who live off of dates and locusts (an insect like a grasshopper). [Hamdun & King, p. 74]

For a modern American take on West African cuisines, check out  this article from the  Washington Post . 

Some of Ibn Battuta's food-related commentary is more overt cultural commentary. Consider this disturbing anecdote, which he said was told to him:

Sultan Mansa Sulayman was visited by a party of ...[non-Muslim] negro cannibals, including one of their [princes]. They have a custom of wearing in their ears large pendants, each pendant having an opening of half a span. They wrap themselves in silk mantles, and in their country there is a gold mine. The sultan received them with honour, and gave them as his hospitality-gift a servant, a [black woman]. They killed and ate her, and having smeared their faces and hands with her blood came to the sultan to thank him. I was informed that this is their regular custom whenever they visit his court. Someone told me about them that they say that the choicest parts of women's flesh are the palm of the hand and the breast. [ Fordham University Medieval Sourcebook ]

Ibn Battuta did not claim to witness the shocking events he described here, and his story begs the question: Would he have been willing to believe and repeat this account if the sultan's visitors had been Muslims?

Ibn Battuta must have wanted to see the ruler quickly, but ten days after his arrival, he reported that became seriously ill after eating some undercooked yams . One of his traveling companions died from the same food! Ibn Battuta remained ill for two months. After he finally recovered, he went to observe a public ceremony - an audience with the sultan Mansa Sulayman.

"[The sultan] has a lofty pavilion ... where he sits most of the time... There came forth from the gate of the palace about 300 slaves, some carrying in their hands bows and others having in their hands short lances and shields... Then two saddled and bridled horses are brought, with two rams which, they say, are effective against the evil eye... The interpreter stands at the gate of the council-place wearing fine garments of silk... and on his head a turban with fringes which they have a novel way of winding... The troops, governors, young men, slaves, ... and others sit outside the council-place in a broad street where there are trees... Anyone who wishes to address the sultan addresses the interpreter and the interpreter addresses a man standing [near the sultan] and that man standing addresses the sultan." [Dunn, p. 302]

He described those who came to the palace:

"Each commander has his followers before him with their spears, bows, drums and bugles made of elephant tusks. Their instruments of music are made of reeds and calabashes, and they beat them with sticks and produce a wonderful sound. Each commander has a quiver which he places between his shoulders. He holds his bow in his hand and is mounted on a mare. Some of his men are on foot and some on mounts." [Hamdun & King, pp. 47 - 48]

At another session (part of a festival) he describes:

"The men-at-arms come with wonderful weaponry: quivers of silver and gold, swords covered with gold... Four of the amirs stand behind him to drive off flies, with ornaments of silver in their hands... .... The Interpreter brings in his four wives and his concubines, who are about a hundred in number. On them are fine clothes and on their heads they have bands of silver and gold with silver and gold apples as pendants. ... A chair is there for the Interpreter and he beats on an instrument which is made of reeds with tiny calabashes below it [a "balophon"] praising the sultan, recalling in his song his expeditions and deeds. The wives and the concubines sing with him... about thirty of his pages... each has a drum tied to him and he beats it. Then ...[come acrobats and jugglers of swords]..." [Hamdun & King, pp. 52 - 53]

Ibn Battuta ended his eight-month stay in Mali with mixed feelings. On the one hand he respected the parents' strict teaching of the Qur'an to their children: "They place fetters [ropes or chains] on their children if there appears ... a failure to memorize the Qur'an, and they are not undone until they memorize it." He also admired the safety of the empire. "Neither traveler there nor dweller has anything to fear from thief or usurper."

On the other hand he criticized many local practices:

"Female slaves and servants who went stark naked into the court for all to see; subjects who groveled before the sultan, beating the ground with their elbows and throwing dust and ashes over their heads; royal poets who romped about in feathers and bird masks."

He also complained about the small gift of bread, meat and yogurt given to him by the king.

"When I saw it I laughed, and was long astonished at their feeble intellect and their respect for mean things."

Later he complained directly to the king:

"I have journeyed to the countries of the world and met their kings. I have been four months in your country without your giving me a reception gift or anything else. What shall I say of you in the presence of other sultans?" [Dunn, p. 300, 303]

That evidently made a difference, though it is hard to know what the locals thought of their demanding guest.

"Then the sultan ordered a house for me in which I stayed and he fixed an allowance for me... He was gracious to me at my departure, to the extent of giving me one hundred mithqals of gold." [Hamdun and King, p. 46]

On his return trip, Ibn Battuta continued to explore parts of Mali. He went to Timbuktu, a town that was just beginning to flower as a center of Islamic scholarship and trade. Mansa Musa himself had a mosque built there. But Ibn Battuta was evidently not very impressed with Timbuktu - a city that would become great in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.

To learn more of the fascinating story of Timbuktu, watch this BBC documentary, The Lost Libraries of Timbuktu ,  posted here by the film-maker.

The lost libraries of timbuktu

His return journey was even more difficult. He had bought a riding camel and another to carry his supplies. But in the desert heat one camel died. Other travelers offered to help carry his supplies, but further on Ibn Battuta fell sick again. He recovered in a small town called Takadda. Here Ibn Battuta received a message from the Sultan of Morocco commanding him to return to Fez immediately. They left Takadda on September 11, 1353 in the company of a large caravan carrying 600 black female slaves to Morocco. The slaves would be sold as domestics (house maids), concubines, or servants of the royal court.

The caravan went northward for 18 days through the wilderness and passed through the land of the veiled Berber nomads whom Ibn Battuta called "good for nothing. We encountered one of their chief men who held up the caravan until he was paid an impost of cloth and other things." They continued on and stopped at Sijilmasa where he stayed about two weeks. Then he went over the High Atlas Mountains in the dead of winter. "I have seen difficult roads and much snow [in other parts of the world], but I never saw a road more difficult than that."

At last he arrived in the capital Fez, a city that was the center of the intellectual universe west of Cairo. It was 1354. He was home - this time for good.

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The trains and stations of the Moscow Metro

2 Comments · Posted by Alex Smirnov in Cities , Travel , Video

The Moscow Metro is the third most intensive subway system in the world after Tokyo and Seoul subways. The first line was opened on May 15, 1935. Since 1955, the metro has the name of V.I. Lenin.

The system consists of 12 lines with a total length of 305.7 km. Forty four stations are recognized cultural heritage. The largest passenger traffic is in rush hours from 8:00 to 9:00 and from 18:00 to 19:00.

Cellular communication is available on most of the stations of the Moscow Metro. In March 2012, a free Wi-Fi appeared in the Circle Line train. The Moscow Metro is open to passengers from 5:20 to 01:00. The average interval between trains is 2.5 minutes.

The fare is paid by using contactless tickets and contactless smart cards, the passes to the stations are controlled by automatic turnstiles. Ticket offices and ticket vending machines can be found in station vestibules.

Tags:  Moscow city

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Tomás · August 27, 2012 at 11:34 pm

The Moscow metro stations are the best That I know, cars do not.

Alberto Calvo · September 25, 2016 at 8:57 pm

Great videos! Moscow Metro is just spectacular. I actually visited Moscow myself quite recently and wrote a post about my top 7 stations, please check it out and let me know what you think! :)

http://www.arwtravels.com/blog/moscow-metro-top-7-stations-you-cant-miss

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