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Tomahawk Cruise Missile

Last updated: 27 Sep 2021

Description The Tomahawk Land Attack Missile (TLAM) is an all-weather, long range, subsonic cruise missile used for deep land attack warfare, launched from U. S. Navy surface ships and U.S. Navy and United Kingdom Royal Navy submarines. Features The Tomahawk Block IV (Tactical Tomahawk, TLAM-E), conventional variant, which entered the Fleet in 2004, adds the capability to reprogram the missile while in-flight via two-way satellite communications to strike any of 15 pre-programmed alternate targets or redirect the missile to any Global Positioning System (GPS) target coordinates. The Block IV missile is capable of loitering over a target area in order to respond to emerging targets or, with its on-board camera, provide battle damage information to warfighting commanders. The Navy received its first Block V configured Tomahawk missile from Raytheon in March 2021, paving the way to provide the fleet with an upgraded warfighting capability. The first Block V missiles are from the existing Tomahawk Block IV inventory, and have been recertified and modernized for fleet use. The mid-life recertification process replaces life-limited components in Block IV missiles to enable their remaining 15 years of service life, and provides the opportunity for the missiles to receive Block V modernizations. All Block IV missiles will undergo recertification and modernization. Block V missiles feature Navigation/Communications (NAV/COMMs) upgrade that enhances navigation performance and provides robust and reliable communications. Future Block V capabilities will include the Maritime Strike Tomahawk (MST) variant, which adds a seeker kit (designated as Block Va), and a replacement for the current warhead with the Joint Multiple Effects Warhead System (JMEWS) (designated as Block Vb). Background Tomahawk cruise missiles are designed to fly at extremely low altitudes at high subsonic speeds, and are piloted over an evasive route by several mission tailored guidance systems. The first operational use was in Operation Desert Storm, 1991, with immense success. The missile has since been used successfully in several other conflicts. In 1995 the governments of the United States and United Kingdom signed a Foreign Military Sales Agreement for the acquisition of 65 missiles, marking the first sale of Tomahawk to a foreign country. In 2003, an agreement was approved for the United Kingdom to procure 65 Block IV Torpedo Tube Launch Tomahawks. The United Kingdom began to receive Block IV missile deliveries in January 2008 and successfully declared their In-Service-Date in March 2008.

General Characteristics & Primary Function: Long-range subsonic cruise missile for striking high value or heavily defended land targets Contractor: Raytheon Missiles & Defense, Tucson, Arizona Date Deployed: Block II TLAM-A – IOC 1984 (retired) Block III TLAM-C, D (retired) – IOC 1994 Block IV – IOC 2004 Block V – Fleet introduction 2021 Propulsion: Block II /III TLAM-A, C & D (retired). Block IV/V TLAM-E – Williams International 415-400 turbofan engine; ARC/CSD solid-fuel booster. Range: Block III TLAM-C (retired) Block III TLAM-D (retired) Block IV/V TLAM-E – 900 nautical miles (1000 statute miles, 1600 km) Guidance System: Block II TLAM-A (retired) Block III TLAM-C, D (retired) Block IV/V TLAM-E – INS, TERCOM, DSMAC, and GPS Warhead: Block II TLAM-N (retired) – W80 nuclear warhead Block III TLAM-C (retired) Block III TLAM-D (retired) Block IV TLAM-E - 1,000 pound class unitary warhead

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Everything To Know About Tomahawk Missiles: Speed, Cost, And Destructive Power

Tomahawk missiles have been world famous since the first Gulf War in 1991 when the United States used the missile against Saddam Hussein's forces in Iraq and Kuwait. Since then, the missile system has been used in nearly every conflict the United States has been involved in, including recent strikes against Houthi rebels in Yemen. Given the weapon's ubiquity, it's worth exploring what exactly a Tomahawk missile is. The United States Navy reports that over 2,300 Tomahawks have been deployed in combat, with that number increasing by the day.

According to the Missile Defense Project from the Center for Strategic and International Studies, the Tomahawk (full name Tomahawk Land Attack Missile) has been in service since 1983 and were first developed for the United States Navy starting in 1972. It was designed to be launched from ships or submarines and was, from the outset, made with nuclear payloads in mind. However, nuclear-armed Tomahawks have not been used in combat and are currently deactivated.

Slow and steady

The Tomahawk missile itself is a 20.3 foot long craft with a wingspan of eight and a half feet, and it weighs 3,330 pounds with all of its components. It's powered by both a rocket booster and turbofan jet engine made by Williams International. According to PBS, the rocket booster engine launches the Tomahawk in the air (hence all the smoke you may see in news broadcasts or photos you see of the missile) and then its jet engine takes the missile the rest of the way to its target.

Despite being powered by rockets and a jet engine, the Tomahawk missile itself isn't that fast, at least comparatively. It reportedly travels at a speed of around 550 miles per hour. An F-16 fighter jet tops out at 1,500 miles per hour and the much larger Minuteman III ballistic missile can reach speeds of up to 15,000 miles per hour. Supposedly, the Tomahawk's relatively low speed helps it avoid radar systems more efficiently. Additionally, it flies at an altitude of between 100 and 300 feet, much lower than conventional fighter aircraft.

Range and power

The actual payload of the Tomahawk can consist of a number of different munitions. But the primary warhead of the Tomahawk is a 1,000-pound high explosive charge. It can also carry cluster munitions consisting of small bomblets, similar to the ATACMS currently used in Ukraine . For explosive force, Tomahawks were more than enough to disable runways or sink ships.

The exact guidance system and navigational dynamics of the Tomahawk missile are classified. However, it is known that it can use GPS or inertial guidance systems to hit the target. Additionally, the U.S. Navy states that up to 15 targets can be pre-programmed for missile salvos. The Tomahawk is capable of "loitering," meaning that, provided the missile has enough fuel, it can fly around in circles to relay information or wait for the right target. It has a range of around 1,500 miles, meaning that the ship or submarine launching the missile is well out of harm's way. It is accurate to within 10 meters.

The Tomahawk's combat history

The Tomahawk is primarily made by Raytheon Missile Systems. According to budget data from the United States Marine Corps from 2022, each Tomahawk costs around $2 million. As of now, the United States and the United Kingdom are the only countries to deploy Tomahawk missiles, although Australia and Japan have put out bids to purchase Tomahawks.

The U.S. Navy states that 140 total craft are capable of launching Tomahawks. That number consists of Ohio-class submarines, Arleigh Burke-class destroyers, and more. The United States Army has also tested launching Tomahawks from ground-based platforms. The USS Missouri, a World War II-era battleship and the very last of its kind, was fitted to fire Tomahawks during the opening salvos of the First Gulf War. It fired a total of 28 cruise missiles, in addition to its 16-inch deck guns.

The submarines USS Louisville and USS Pittsburgh launched Tomahawks in 1991 at targets in Iraq and became the first submarines to fire Tomahawks while submerged.

Several decades of service

Outside of the Gulf War, Tomahawks were used to attack Iraq several more times in the 1990s, against Bosnian targets in 1995, during NATO actions against Yugoslavia, and during the engagements against Afghanistan after 9/11. More recently, Tomahawks saw use in Libya as part of Operation Odyssey Dawn, ISIS in Syria experienced the effects of Tomahawks, and Syrian chemical weapons facilities used by despot Bashar Al-Assad were struck by Tomahawks in 2017. In 2024, both American and British forces launched Tomahawks against Houthi rebels after the rebel group attacked shipping lanes and US-flagged vessels in the Red Sea.

Raytheon reports that the Tomahawk missile could stay in service until at least 2035. By that time, the cruise missile will have eclipsed 50 years of service. With its long range, ability to be launched practically anywhere in the world from above or below the waves, and its accuracy, the Tomahawk has proved literally thousands of times that it is a vital part of the arsenals of the U.S. Navy and the Royal Navy.

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Tomahawk Long-Range Cruise Missile

Tomahawk is a long-range, all-weather, subsonic cruise missile in service with the surface ships and submarines of the US and the UK’s Royal Navy.

Long-range subsonic cruise missile

Manufacturer

US Navy and Royal Navy

Williams International F415 cruise turbo-fan

Tomahawk is a long-range, all-weather, subsonic cruise missile in service with the surface ships and submarines of the US and the UK’s Royal Navy. Originally produced by General Dynamics, Tomahawk is currently manufactured by Raytheon.

The Tomahawk Land Attack Missile (TLAM) can strike high-value or heavily defended land targets. The Block II TLAM-A missile achieved initial operating capability in 1984. The missile was first deployed in combat during Operation Desert Storm in 1991.

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The Tomahawk family of missiles includes a number of variants, carrying different warheads. The UGM-109A Tomahawk (Block II TLAM-A) carries a W80 nuclear warhead.

RGM / UGM-109C (Block III TLAM-C) is a conventional unitary variant, carrying a 1,000lb-class warhead. RGM / UGM-109D (Block III TLAM-D) is a submunitions dispenser variant armed with 166 combined-effects bomblets.

RGM / UGM-109E Tomahawk (Block IV TLAM-E) is the latest member in the Tomahawk missile family. It carries a 1,000lb-class unitary warhead for a maximum range of 900nmi.

The Tomahawk Block IV missiles were converted and upgraded to Block V in 2017. The upgraded Tomahawk includes extended range, enhanced navigation and communication systems and modernised data-link radio.

The upgrades were performed at Raytheon’s Tucson, Arizona facility. The US Navy will use the upgraded Tomahawk cruise missiles beyond 2040. Raytheon was contracted to integrate the upgraded navigation and communication systems into the Block IV Tactical Tomahawk (TACTOM) missile in March 2020. The upgraded version is known as the Block V TACTOM.

The Block Va variants will be named Maritime Strike and have the capability of hitting a moving target. The Block Vb will feature the Joint Multi-Effects Warhead System.

Tomahawk design features

The Tomahawk is designed to operate at very low altitudes while maintaining high-subsonic speeds. Its modular design enables the integration of numerous types of warheads, guidance and control systems.

The missile carries a nuclear or conventional payload. It can be armed with a nuclear or unitary warhead or a conventional submunitions dispenser with combined-effect bomblets. The missile has a 5.56m length, 51.8cm diameter and a 2.67m wingspan. The weight of the missile is 1,315kg. It has a life span of 30 years.

The Tomahawk weapon system includes the Tomahawk missile, Theatre Mission Planning Centre (TMPC) / Afloat Planning System and the Tomahawk weapon control system (TWCS) for surface vessels or combat control system (CCS) for submarines.

Guidance and control

The Tomahawk Block IV uses GPS navigation and a satellite data-link to continue through a pre-set course. The missile can be reprogrammed in-flight to a new target.

The two-way satellite communications are used to perform post-launch mission changes throughout the flight. The on-board camera provides imagery of the target to the commanders before the strike.

The guidance system is assisted by Terrain Contour Matching (TERCOM). The Digital Scene Matching Area Correlation (DSMAC) system or GPS provide terminal guidance.

The Tactical Tomahawk Weapons Control System (TTWCS) integrated within the ship’s systems computes the path to engage targets. The system enables the planning of new missions on board the launch vessel. TTWCS is also used to communicate with multiple missiles for reassigning the targets and redirecting the missiles in flight.

The Block IV Tomahawk missile is outfitted with advanced electronic support measure (ESM) seeker in Block IV Tomahawk missile. Its joint multi-effects warhead enables the commander to control the blast.

The Tomahawk Block IV missile is powered by a Williams International F415 cruise turbo-fan engine and ARC MK 135 rocket motor. The propulsion provides a subsonic speed of 880km/h.

Tomahawk launch platforms

The missile can be launched from over 140 US Navy ships and submarines and Astute and Trafalgar class submarines of the Royal Navy. All cruisers, destroyers, guided missile and attack submarines in the US Navy are equipped with a Tomahawk weapons system.

US Navy launch platforms were modified to accommodate upgraded Tomahawk missile variants. Four Ohio class nuclear ballistic missile submarines were converted into cruise missile submarines for firing Tomahawk missiles. The Virginia class submarines and the Royal Navy Astute class submarines were also fitted with new vertical launch modules for Tomahawk missile.

Tomahawk orders and deliveries

The US signed a foreign military sales (FMS) agreement with the UK in 1995 to supply 65 Tomahawks for use with the Royal Navy nuclear submarines. The first batch of missiles was delivered in 1998.

The US Government approved an agreement in 2003 to deliver 65 Tomahawk Block IV missiles for the UK. In August 2004, the US Navy placed a $1.6bn multi-year procurement contract with Raytheon for 2,200 Tomahawk Block IV missiles.

Raytheon was awarded a $346m production contract for 473 Tomahawk Block IV cruise missiles in March 2006. The contract includes 65 submarine torpedo tube-launched missiles for the Royal Navy. The Block IV entered service with the Royal Navy in March 2008.

Raytheon was awarded a $207m-worth firm-fixed-price contract in March 2009 for 207 Tomahawk Block IV All-Up-Round (AUR) missiles.

The 2,000th Tomahawk Block IV missile was delivered to the US Navy in February 2010.

The US Navy placed a $338m contract with Raytheon in June 2012 for the delivery of 361 Tomahawk Block IV tactical cruise missiles. Another contract worth $254.6m was awarded for Tomahawk Block IV in the same year.

Raytheon delivered the 3,000th Tomahawk Block IV to the US Navy in January 2014 as part of the ninth Block IV production contract.

The US Navy awarded a $251m contract to Raytheon for the production and delivery of Tomahawk Block IV missiles for both the US Navy and Royal Navy in September 2014.

A $25.9m contract for Tomahawk missile composite capsule launching systems (C/CLS) was awarded in December 2014. The C/CLS is integrated with the nuclear-powered fast-attack submarines and nuclear-powered guided-missile submarines, allowing the missile to be launched from submarines.

Tomahawk Block IV missile demonstrated its moving target capability in tests conducted in February 2015.

Raytheon received a $122m contract from the US Navy in March 2015 for the production of 114 Tomahawk Block IV all-up round missiles. Raytheon conducted an active seeker test flight for the Tomahawk Block IV cruise missile in January 2016.

The 4,000th Tomahawk Block IV missile was delivered to the US Navy in August 2017. The US Navy warships and submarines launched 66 GPS-enabled Tomahawk missiles at Syrian chemical weapon facilities in 2018.

Raytheon planned to undertake recertification and modernisation programmes for Tomahawk Block IV missile in 2019 to add maritime strike capability and multiple-effects warhead upgrades to the missiles.

Raytheon received a $349m contract for phase two of the Maritime Strike Tomahawk Rapid Deployment Capability to improve the Tomahawk cruise missile system in August 2019. Work will be executed in various locations across the US until February 2023.

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What is a cruise missile?

Cruise missiles, although similar to ballistic missiles in some regards, provide an alternate means to deliver a lethal payload rapidly and accurately to a target. Cruise missiles differ from ballistic missiles in that they fly towards their target at lower altitudes, remaining within the Earth’s atmosphere throughout their trajectory. Cruise missiles are defined as “an unmanned self-propelled guided vehicle that sustains flight through aerodynamic lift for most of its flight path and whose primary mission is to place an ordnance or special payload on a target.” [1] Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) and unmanned control-guided helicopters or aircraft can be included in this definition [2] , but will not be discussed on this page.

The cruise missile has its beginnings in World War I, when the U.S. Army developed the Kettering Bug, an unmanned aerial bomb designed to strike targets beyond the range of artillery and too dangerous for piloted aircraft. However, the Kettering Bug was never used in combat. [3] Instead, the modern cruise missile originates more from the V-1 Flying Bomb used by the Germany in the last months of World War II. [4]

Launch Platforms

Cruise missiles are capable of being launched from multiple ground, air, sea and submarine platforms. Both fighter and long-range bomber aircraft are capable of carrying and launching cruise missiles. [5] On the ground, cruise missiles are most commonly launched by road-mobile systems due to the inherent advantages of mobility, but they can also be launched from fixed platforms. [6]

Russian warships in the Caspian Sea launch Kalibr cruise missiles towards targets inside Syria.

At sea, various surface ships and submarines can launch cruise missiles. Submarines are capable of launching while surfaced or submerged using torpedo fixtures or vertical launch tubes. [7] In April 2010 Kontsern-Morinformsistema-Agat, a Russian company, began marketing a version of the Russian Kalibr cruise missile housed in and capable of being launched from a standard shipping container. [8] This would allow any vehicle capable of carrying a standard shipping container to become a discreet platform from which to launch cruise missiles. [9]

Propulsion and Flight

Cruise missiles utilize jet engines as their primary method of propulsion. Most cruise missiles are subsonic and use Turbofan and Turbojet engines. While less common, supersonic and hypersonic cruise missiles utilize Ramjet and Scramjet engines. [10] Some also use rocket motor propulsion as a booster in the first phase of flight [11]  or to accelerate to supersonic speeds in the terminal phase. [12]

Cruise missiles can fly to their targets at varying altitudes as long as they remain within the atmosphere. The trajectory of most remains close to the Earth’s surface, sometimes skimming just meters above the ground. Their low flight path makes it much harder for most radar and sensor systems to detect the missile, unless the radar or sensor system is airborne and directed towards the ground. [13] Some cruise missiles will fly only at high altitudes and dive sharply down once they reach their target. Flying at high altitude can extend the range of the missile because it’s more fuel-efficient than flying at lower altitudes. However, this also makes the missile more susceptible to missile defense systems since today’s radars and sensors are typically positioned to detect and track high altitude threats. [14] Cruise missiles can also mix their flight trajectory between high and low altitude in order to get the benefits of both. In this instance, cruise missiles will typically fly at a high altitude early in their flight to help extend their range, but as they approach their target, or missile defenses, they will fly down to a lower sea skimming/terrain hugging altitude to help it evade detection and defenses. [15]

Flight test of Pakistan’s Ra’ad cruise missile.

Cruise missiles can use multiple guidance methods in order to accurately place their ordinance on the desired target and avoid missile defense systems. One of the first methods used by cruise missiles was inertial guidance, which is still used today and allows the missile to fly along a flight path programmed prior to launch. [16] Another guidance method is terrain contour matching (TERCOM), which compares a terrain map to the current terrain the missile is flying over to ensure the missile is flying on the correct path. [17] Some use GPS systems, which require connection to either GPS or GLONASS satellite system, but can help ensure the missile follows the correct flight path and strikes the final target using specific coordinates with a high degree of accuracy. [18]

Other guidance methods are primarily used in the terminal phase of flight to increase accuracy. One is a laser guided system which uses a sensor to detect its target painted by a laser, however this can be unreliable because dust and smoke can interfere with the laser or the missile may not always be able to see the laser or painted target. [19] Another terminal guidance method is TV guidance, in which an operator uses a camera in the nose of the missile to visually identify and manually guide the missile to the target in its final phase. This method also gives the operator the option to abort the strike in the final phase if an anomaly is detected. [20]  A radar seeker is also used in the nose of some missiles to identify and/or keep the missile on target in the terminal phase. These radar seekers use either passive radar, which detect radar emissions of their target, or active radar, which emit their own radar to detect their target. [21] Infrared (IR) guidance – directing the missile towards heat emitting objects, such as engines [22] – may also be used by cruise missiles in the terminal phase. [23] However, because of its simplicity, IR guidance cannot differentiate between friendly, adversarial, or extraneous IR signals in a crowded battlefield, and is usually used in conjunction with other guidance systems. [24] The last guidance system used by cruise missiles is Digital Scene Matching Area Correlation (DSMAC), which uses a camera in the missile to find the desired target and match it to a stored image using an image correlator. [25]

Cruise missiles are typically armed with conventional or nuclear warheads, but can also be equipped with chemical or biological warheads. [26] The warhead weight and yield can vary widely, depending on the specific cruise missile and its mission.

[1] “Cruise Missiles.” Federation of American Scientists. http://fas.org/nuke/intro/cm/

[3] “Kettering Bug.” UAVGLOBAL. http://www.uavglobal.com/kettering-bug/ ; “War Machines: Cruise Missile.” National Geographic. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AD8Kr0f1tEY

[4] Hickman, Kennedy. “World War II: V-1 Flying Bomb.” About Education. http://militaryhistory.about.com/od/artillerysiegeweapons/p/v1.htm

[5] N.R.P. “Explained: How Cruise Missiles Work!” Defencyclopedia. https://defencyclopedia.com/2014/08/01/explained-how-cruise-missiles-work/

[8] Stott, Michael. “Deadly New Russian Weapon Hides in Shipping Container.” Reuters. http://www.reuters.com/article/us-russia-weapon-idUSTRE63P2XB20100426

[9] Lewis, Jeffrey, Nikolai Sokov. “Sokov on Russian Cruise Missiles.” Arms Control Wonk. http://www.armscontrolwonk.com/archive/207801/sokov-on-russian-cruise-missiles/

[11] Brain, Marshall. “How Cruise Missiles Work.” How Stuff Works. http://science.howstuffworks.com/cruise-missile.htm

[12] N.R.P. “Explained: How Cruise Missiles Work!” Defencyclopedia. https://defencyclopedia.com/2014/08/01/explained-how-cruise-missiles-work/

[22] Kopp, Carlo. “Heat-Seeking Missile Guidance.” Air Power Australia. http://ausairpower.net/TE-IR-Guidance.html

[23] N.R.P. “Explained: How Cruise Missiles Work!” Defencyclopedia. https://defencyclopedia.com/2014/08/01/explained-how-cruise-missiles-work/

[25] Brain, Marshall. “How Cruise Missiles Work.” How Stuff Works. http://science.howstuffworks.com/cruise-missile.htm

[26] “Ballistic and Cruise Missile Threat.” Federation of American Scientists.   http://fas.org/irp/threat/missile/naic/part02.htm ; Norris, Robert S., Hans M. Kristensen. “Nuclear Cruise Missiles.” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. http://bos.sagepub.com/content/63/6/60.full

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The Simple Difference Between Ballistic Missiles and Cruise Missiles

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In 2017, North Korea unexpectedly staged a test launch of what was then a new ballistic missile , the Pukguksong-2. The launch took place when Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe was on a state visit to the United States . There have been many more test launches of ballistic missiles by North Korea since. Between May and October 2019, North Korea launched as many as 12 ballistic missiles or other projectiles. But they have all been just test launches.

Things got real, though, on Jan. 7, 2020, when Iran launched more than a dozen ballistic missiles at two Iraqi military bases housing U.S. troops. This was not a test launch. It was Iran's retaliation for the U.S. drone strike that killed Iran Gen. Qassem Soleimani on Jan. 3, 2020. There were no casualties and Iran's Foreign Minister Mohammad Javad Zarif defended the missile strike on the U.S. bases in Iraq, saying it was an act of "self-defense."

But for the non-military minded among us, these ballistic missile launches — both the constant test launches in North Korea and the intentional strikes on U.S. bases in Iraq — may raise a good question: What exactly is a ballistic missile, anyway? Is there something about the ballistic part that makes a missile even more dangerous? After all, when someone freaks out we say they've "gone ballistic."

According to the Federation of American Scientists , a ballistic missile is one that has a ballistic trajectory over most of its flight path. What that means is that once the missile burns up the fuel that propels it, the missile keeps moving, the same way that a bullet does after it's been fired out of a gun. Once the fuel is gone, the missile's direction can't be altered. It follows a path determined by the speed of its launch and the force of gravity trying to pull it back toward the Earth's surface. Eventually, gravity guides the missile — and its payload, which might be an explosive, a chemical or biological weapon, or a nuclear device — down toward its target.

Ballistic missiles are different than cruise missiles. Cruise missiles are self-propelled for the majority of their time in the air, flying in a relatively straight line and at lower altitudes thanks to a rocket propellant. Think of a ballistic missile's flight path as a large arc up and back down again, while that of a cruise missile — fired from a warship, for instance — is closer to a straight line.

Ballistic missiles first came into use during World War II, when the Germans used a ballistic missile called the V-2 to attack London. British air defenses designed to stop aircraft couldn't stop the V-2s, because the rockets traveled too high into the upper atmosphere and moved too fast.

After the war, the U.S., with the help of captured German technology and scientists, built its own arsenal of even more powerful intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) capable of unleashing nuclear destruction upon targets on the other side of the world. The Soviet Union and China built ICBMs as well, setting up a world where a nuclear war was deterred by the prospect of mutual assured destruction.

The North Korean regime successfully tested intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBM) in July and November 2017. Its Hwasong-15 ICBM reached an altitude of 2,780 miles (4,475 kilometers) and flew about 590 miles (1,000 kilometers) before landing in the sea off the coast of Japan. Analysts estimate the Hwasong-15 has a potential range of 8,100 miles (13,000 kilometers). If it's fired on a flatter trajectory, it could reach potentially reach anywhere on the U.S. mainland.

Which countries have intercontinental ballistic missiles?

What is meant by ballistic trajectory, what is difference between a ballistic and a cruise missile, how high do ballistic missiles fly, are ballistic missiles nuclear.

Please copy/paste the following text to properly cite this HowStuffWorks.com article:

• Missiles of the World
• The United States

AGM-86 Air-Launched Cruise Missile (ALCM)

The AGM-86 Air-Launched Cruise Missile (ALCM) is a long-range, air-launched standoff missile designed to give U.S. bombers the ability to launch their payload from outside the range of anti-aircraft weapons. It is a central element of the United States strategic bomber force.

ALCM at a Glance

ALCM Development

The ALCM program began in the early 1970s, designed to give U.S. bombers the ability to launch their payload from outside the range of Soviet anti-aircraft weapons. The series includes several variants to allow for different payloads or ranges. There are currently around 500 ALCMs in the U.S. arsenal. 1

Over 3,000 AGM-86Bs were scheduled for procurement starting in 1982, but by 1986, production was terminated in favor of the AGM-129. Between 1982 and 1986, 1,715 AGM-86Bs were produced. 9 Currently, the stockpile has been reduced to around 528. In 1998, a life extension program was initiated to refurbish the nuclear warheads carried by the AGM-86B and is expected to keep them operational through 2030, until its expected replacement, the Long-Range Standoff Weapon (LRSO), enters service.

AGM-86C/D Conventional ALCM (CALCM) Variants

The AGM-86C CALCM is an AGM-86B without a nuclear payload. The existence of this model became known only after its use in the 1991 Gulf War. Starting in 1986, a total of 622 AGM-86s were converted to the conventional configuration. Several different variations have been manufactured including Block 1/-1A and the AGM-86D (Block 2). The conversion process entails replacing nearly every part including modifying the engine, updating the guidance systems, and removing the nuclear warhead.

Externally, all the AGM86-C variations are the same dimensions as the nuclear equipped AGM–86B. The base AGM-86C and AGM-86D have a launch weight of 1,750 kg, whereas the Block 1 weighs 200 kg more, at 1,950 kg. The warhead for the base AGM-86C is a high explosive (HE) unit weighing 910 kg; the Block 1 is a HE weighing 1,360 kg; and the Block 2 is a HE/penetration weighing 545 kg. All the models use inertial guidance with GPS updates. It has a reduced range (compared to the AGM-86B) of 1,200 km as a result of the heavier payload of conventional explosives.

• James O’Halloran, “AGM-86 Air Launched Cruise Missile (ALCM) and CALCM,” in IHS Jane’s Air-Launched Weapons , December 20, 2012.
• Will Saetren, Ghosts of the Cold War: Rethinking the Need for a New Nuclear Cruise Missile , Ploughshares Fund, April 2016, 5.
• Saetren, Ghosts of the Cold War: Rethinking the Need for a New Nuclear Cruise Missile, 6.
• Military Today, “AGM-86 ALCM,” http://www.military–today.com/missiles/agm_86b_alcm.htm, Accessed 11/15/2016.
• James O’Halloran, “AGM-86 Air Launched Cruise Missile (ALCM) and CALCM” in IHS Jane’s Air-Launched Weapons , December 20, 2012.
• “AGM-86B/C/D Missiles,” United States Air Force, May 24, 2010, http://www.af.mil/information/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id=74.
• Airforce Technology. “B1 Lancer, Long-Range Strategic Bomber,” Accessed 28 November 2016, http://www.airforce-technology.com/projects/b-1b/.
• James O’Halloran “AGM-86 Air Launched Cruise Missile (ALCM) and CALCM,” in IHS Jane’s Air-Launched Weapons , December 20, 2012.
• “AGM-86B/C/D Missiles.” United States Air Force. May 24, 2010.http://www.af.mil/information/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id=74
• James O’Halloran, “AGM-86 Air Launched Cruise Missile (ALCM) and CALCM,” in IHS Jane’s Air-Launched Weapons,  December 20, 2012.
• Masao Dahlgren, “US Retires CALCM Missile,” Missile Threat, Center for Strategic and International Studies, December 5, 2019, last modified December 5, 2019, https://missilethreat.csis.org/us-retires-calcm-missile/.

Missile Travel Distance: How Far Can Ballistic and Cruise Missiles Reach?

Medium-range ballistic missiles travel from 1,000 to 3,000 kilometers (620-1,860 miles). Intermediate-range ballistic missiles can reach distances between 3,000 and 5,500 kilometers (1,860-3,410 miles). Intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) can travel over 5,500 kilometers (more than 3,410 miles).

In contrast, cruise missiles travel at lower altitudes and use aerodynamic lift. They often have a range of about 1,500 to 3,000 kilometers. Some advanced cruise missiles can reach up to 5,500 kilometers. They navigate using GPS and inertial guidance systems, allowing for precise targeting.

Both types of missiles play crucial roles in national defense strategies. Ballistic missiles serve as strategic deterrents, while cruise missiles support tactical missions. Understanding missile travel distance enables countries to assess their military capabilities and potential threats.

As global tensions continue to rise, nations are focusing on missile development. Advancements in technology are expanding the reach and effectiveness of both ballistic and cruise missiles. The next part will explore the implications of these advancements on international security and military strategies.

Table of Contents

What Types of Missiles Exist and How Do They Work?

There are several types of missiles, each categorized based on their design, purpose, and operational mechanics. The main types include ballistic missiles, cruise missiles, anti-ship missiles, air-to-air missiles, and surface-to-air missiles.

• Ballistic Missiles
• Cruise Missiles
• Anti-Ship Missiles
• Air-to-Air Missiles
• Surface-to-Air Missiles

Understanding these types of missiles provides insights into military capabilities and defense strategies.

Ballistic Missiles : Ballistic missiles are weapons that follow a high-arcing trajectory. They are launched directly into the atmosphere and primarily rely on gravity to return to the earth. These missiles typically have multiple stages and can reach speeds exceeding 2,000 mph. The Strategic Command of the U.S. estimates that long-range ballistic missiles can hit targets over 3,400 miles away. Notable examples include the Minuteman III and the Trident II missiles, which are utilized by the United States and its allies as a deterrent against nuclear threats. A report by John D. distills their significance: “Ballistic missiles represent a crucial element of nuclear deterrence strategies.”

Cruise Missiles : Cruise missiles are powered throughout their flight and are designed for precision targeting. They fly at lower altitudes, typically between 200 to 400 feet, and use guidance systems, such as GPS, to navigate to their target. The Tomahawk missile is a prominent example used by the U.S. Navy. These missiles can travel hundreds of miles with accuracy, and their ability to avoid radar defenses makes them a critical asset in modern warfare. According to the Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS), “Cruise missiles enhance striking capabilities without direct confrontation.”

Anti-Ship Missiles : Anti-ship missiles are specifically designed to target naval vessels. They utilize various guidance methods, including active radar homing and terminal guidance systems, to ensure successful engagement of enemy ships. The Harpoon missile is a well-known anti-ship missile used by multiple navies globally. In naval warfare, the development and deployment of anti-ship missiles underscore the shift towards asymmetric naval strategies. A study by the Naval War College highlights the increasing role of these missiles in shaping maritime security dynamics.

Air-to-Air Missiles : Air-to-air missiles are designed to be launched from one aircraft to hit another in flight. They can be guided by various systems, such as infrared homing, which targets the heat emitted by the enemy aircraft. Notable examples include the AIM-120 AMRAAM and the R-77 missile. These missiles play a vital role in air dominance, ensuring that military aircraft maintain superiority over adversaries. Research by the Air Force Association underscores, “Air-to-air missiles are critical in modern aerial combat scenarios.”

Surface-to-Air Missiles : Surface-to-air missiles are launched from the ground to intercept and destroy enemy aircraft or missiles. They are an integral part of air defense systems, providing protection for critical assets and strategic locations. The Patriot missile system is among the most recognized in this domain, known for its ability to engage incoming threats effectively. According to the RAND Corporation, “Surface-to-air missile systems form the backbone of modern air defense.”

These missile types reflect a spectrum of technologies and strategies that inform military planning and international security. Their evolution continues to impact global defense dynamics significantly.

What Is the Maximum Range of Ballistic Missiles?

The maximum range of ballistic missiles varies widely based on their design and purpose. Ballistic missiles are primarily classified based on their range into short-range, medium-range, intermediate-range, and intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs). ICBMs can exceed ranges of 5,500 kilometers (3,400 miles), enabling them to target distant continents.

According to the Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS), the defining characteristic of these missiles is their trajectory. They are launched into space and follow a parabolic path back to Earth, allowing them to reach great distances.

Ballistic missile range is influenced by several factors, including payload capacity, propulsion systems, and the level of technology used in their guidance systems. Various missile types exist: the U.S. Minuteman III ICBM has a range of approximately 13,000 kilometers, while shorter-range variants like the Scud missile can reach about 300 kilometers.

The Federation of American Scientists (FAS) notes that technological advancements may increase missile ranges further in the future. Current arsenals show approximately 9 countries deploy operational ICBMs, contributing to global security dynamics.

The potential reach of ballistic missiles raises concerns regarding geopolitical stability and national security. Nations may engage in arms races, heightening tensions and the risk of conflict.

Health impacts largely stem from the consequences of nuclear detonation, including radiation exposure. Environmental effects include habitat destruction from missile tests and fallout.

For mitigation, experts recommend arms control agreements, non-proliferation treaties, and international cooperation. The United Nations advocates for disarmament discussions to manage missile capabilities effectively.

Innovative technologies, such as missile tracking systems and advanced defense mechanisms, can help counter threats posed by ballistic missiles. Continuous monitoring and dialogue among nations can foster a safer global environment.

How Far Can Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles (ICBMs) Travel?

Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles (ICBMs) can travel distances of approximately 5,500 kilometers (about 3,400 miles) or more. This range allows them to target locations across different continents. ICBMs achieve this range due to their powerful propulsion systems and ballistic trajectories. Once launched, they exit the Earth’s atmosphere, follow a high arc, and then re-enter to deliver their payload. Some advanced ICBMs can exceed this range, reaching up to 15,000 kilometers (about 9,300 miles). These capabilities enable nations to strike far-off targets with precision and speed.

What Is the Range of Short-Range Ballistic Missiles (SRBMs)?

Short-Range Ballistic Missiles (SRBMs) are missile systems designed to deliver payloads over a relatively short distance, typically defined as between 300 kilometers (186 miles) and 1,000 kilometers (621 miles). These missiles are primarily used for tactical and regional military operations.

The United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs provides an authoritative definition of SRBMs, categorizing them based on their range and purpose. According to their classification, SRBMs are designed for quick deployment and limited geographic targeting.

SRBMs play a significant role in modern warfare. They can be launched from mobile platforms, making them hard to detect. SRBMs often carry conventional warheads for military strikes or nuclear warheads for deterrence. Their speed and accuracy make them effective for striking time-sensitive targets.

The Federation of American Scientists also defines SRBMs, emphasizing their importance within a nation’s strategic defense framework. They contribute to a country’s tactical edge by allowing for rapid response capabilities.

Several factors contribute to the increased development of SRBMs, including geopolitical tensions and advancements in technology. Nations are investing in missile technology for national security and defense against perceived threats.

Worldwide, there are about 1,000 operational SRBMs, contributing to global military capabilities. Data indicates that several countries, including North Korea and Iran, possess and actively develop SRBMs, influencing regional stability.

SRBMs can lead to escalated conflicts and arms races. Their proliferation raises concerns about miscalculations during military engagements. This may impact diplomatic relations and promote regional insecurity.

Society, the economy, and health can be affected by the militarization associated with SRBMs. Increased defense spending may divert resources from social programs, raising public concerns. Additionally, heightened military tensions can lead to psychological stress among populations.

For instance, conflicts involving SRBMs, such as the North Korean missile tests, result in international sanctions and economic repercussions. They can destabilize regions, compelling nations to increase military spending.

Experts recommend arms control agreements and transparency measures to address the issue of SRBMs. Organizations like the International Institute for Strategic Studies advocate for diplomatic dialogues to reduce tensions.

Mitigation strategies include developing missile defense systems and enhancing intelligence capabilities. Countries are encouraged to strengthen international cooperation to prevent the misuse of SRBM technology.

How Far Can Medium-Range Ballistic Missiles (MRBMs) Travel?

Medium-range ballistic missiles (MRBMs) can travel distances typically between 1,000 to 3,500 kilometers. Countries often use MRBMs for regional conflicts. The range depends on the specific missile design and payload. These missiles follow a suborbital flight path, which consists of a powered ascent and a descending phase. MRBMs can effectively strike targets within their range, providing military capabilities under certain strategic circumstances. Understanding these distances is crucial for assessing missile threats and regional security.

What Is the Maximum Range of Cruise Missiles?

The maximum range of cruise missiles is typically defined as the farthest distance they can travel to reach their target. This distance can vary based on missile type, design, and purpose. Generally, cruise missiles have ranges that can exceed 1,500 kilometers (930 miles).

According to the Federation of American Scientists, cruise missiles are categorized by their ability to navigate over long distances and deliver precision strikes. They typically fly at low altitudes to avoid detection and are designed for various military uses, including targeting land and naval assets.

Cruise missiles employ advanced guidance systems such as GPS and inertial navigation, allowing them to accurately reach distant targets. They can be launched from various platforms, including ships, submarines, and aircraft, which makes them versatile in military operations.

The Missile Defense Advocacy Alliance states that some modern cruise missiles, like the Russian Kalibr and the U.S. Tomahawk, can have ranges from 1,500 kilometers to over 3,000 kilometers, depending on configuration and enhancements.

Factors influencing cruise missile range include propulsion technology, aerodynamic design, and the weight of the payload. Developing stealth capabilities also plays a significant role in extending operational reach.

The Missile Technology Control Regime reports that at least 30 countries possess cruise missiles, and their proliferation can increase geopolitical tensions. The growing reliance on these weapons may lead to heightened military readiness and arms races among nations.

The use of cruise missiles can have consequences for global security, as conflicts may escalate with their deployment. Their precision allows for targeted strikes but raises questions about collateral damage and civilian safety.

Cruise missiles can affect defense spending, as nations invest resources in developing countermeasures. This can lead to economic shifts as military budgets are reallocated to enhance defense capabilities.

To address risks associated with cruise missiles, experts suggest strengthening international agreements like the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons. Improved communication between nations can reduce misunderstandings and military escalations.

Strategies such as developing missile defense systems and engaging in diplomatic efforts may mitigate risks. Collaborative research and technology sharing among nations may enhance global security and stabilize regions prone to conflict.

How Far Can Land-Attack Cruise Missiles (LACMs) Travel?

Land-attack cruise missiles (LACMs) can travel distances typically ranging from 500 to 2,500 kilometers. Some advanced variants can exceed this range, reaching up to 3,000 kilometers. The range depends on the missile’s design, propulsion system, and intended use. For example, some LACMs use jet engines for efficient, sustained flight, while others may utilize alternative technologies. In summary, the travel distance of LACMs varies based on their specific design specifications, but they commonly operate within the 500-3,000 kilometer range.

What Are the Travel Distances of Anti-Ship Cruise Missiles?

The travel distances of anti-ship cruise missiles vary widely based on the specific missile system. Generally, the range can range from 100 kilometers to over 1,500 kilometers.

• Key Types of Anti-Ship Cruise Missiles: – Short-range missiles – Medium-range missiles – Long-range missiles

The different types of anti-ship cruise missiles reflect a range of strategic capabilities and technological developments. Each type serves distinct military objectives, allowing forces to engage maritime targets at varying distances.

Short-range Missiles: Short-range missiles have travel distances of up to 100 kilometers. These missiles are typically used for coastal defense. They are often launched from small vessels or ground installations. An example is the Russian Kh-35, designed for engagements against smaller ships.

Medium-range Missiles: Medium-range missiles can travel between 100 and 600 kilometers. These missiles allow naval forces to strike from beyond the reach of enemy ship guns and defensive systems. For instance, the U.S. Navy’s AGM-158C LRASM falls into this category, offering advanced guidance systems and low observability.

Long-range Missiles: Long-range missiles exceed 600 kilometers in distance. These systems can target enemy naval forces far from the shore. The Chinese YJ-12 is an example, with ranges reported between 400 and 1,500 kilometers, depending on the version. Such capabilities can significantly extend a nation’s maritime strike reach.

Various perspectives highlight different military doctrines regarding missile ranges. Some experts argue that shorter-range missiles are more cost-effective for local defense, while others emphasize the importance of long-range missiles for power projection worldwide.

How Do Missile Ranges Compare Across Different Countries?

Missile ranges vary significantly across countries, influenced by factors such as technology, military strategy, and available resources. For instance, countries like the United States, Russia, and China have developed advanced ballistic and cruise missiles with extensive ranges, while smaller nations may possess shorter-range systems.

United States: – The U.S. is home to intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) with ranges exceeding 5,500 kilometers. The Minuteman III is a notable example, capable of targeting distant regions accurately (Department of Defense, 2021). – The U.S. Navy operates submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs) like the Trident II, which can reach ranges of approximately 12,000 kilometers (Naval Sea Systems Command, 2022).

Russia: – Russia boasts some of the farthest-reaching missile systems globally. Its Topol-M ICBM has a range of about 11,000 kilometers (Russian Ministry of Defense, 2019). – The Avangard hypersonic glide vehicle can also be deployed on existing ICBMs, allowing for similar or extended ranges.

China: – China has developed a range of missiles with significant capabilities. The DF-41 ICBM has an estimated range of up to 15,000 kilometers, positioning it among the longest-reaching missiles (International Institute for Strategic Studies, 2020). – China also invests in cruise missile technology, such as the CJ-10, with ranges around 1,500 kilometers (Jane’s Defence, 2021).

Smaller Nations: – Countries such as North Korea possess shorter-range missiles, like the Scud series, which can reach between 300 to 1,000 kilometers (Institute for International Strategic Studies, 2020). – These nations often focus on regional threats, leading to the development of systems tailored for immediate conflicts rather than long-range capabilities.

In summary, missile ranges differ widely based on a nation’s technological advancements, strategic aims, and security needs.

What Factors Influence the Travel Distances of Missiles?

The factors influencing the travel distances of missiles include design features, propulsion systems, payload weight, and atmospheric conditions.

• Design Features
• Propulsion Systems
• Payload Weight
• Atmospheric Conditions

Understanding these factors provides insights into the complexities of missile performance. Each aspect contributes differently to the operational range and effectiveness of different missile types.

Design Features : Design features significantly influence missile travel distances. The shape and materials used in missile construction affect aerodynamics and weight. For example, a missile designed with a streamlined shape can minimize drag, enhancing its travel distance. According to a study by Dr. Andrew Brooks (2019), the aerodynamic design of a missile can increase its range by approximately 25%.

Propulsion Systems : Propulsion systems play a crucial role in determining how far a missile can travel. Various systems, such as solid-fuel and liquid-fuel engines, provide different thrust levels and burn durations. Solid-fuel missiles, like the U.S. Minuteman, are noted for their reliability and quicker launch times. In contrast, liquid-fuel missiles, such as the Soviet R-7, can achieve longer ranges but require more time for preparation. According to the Defense Technology Institute (2020), advancements in propulsion technology can extend missile ranges by up to 30%.

Payload Weight : Payload weight impacts missile travel distances. Heavier payloads consume more fuel, reducing the overall range. For example, a missile carrying a nuclear warhead typically has a shorter range than one carrying conventional explosives. A 2021 analysis by the International Institute for Strategic Studies noted that missiles with lighter payloads, like the Tomahawk cruise missile, can achieve greater distances compared to heavier strategic missiles designed for nuclear deployment.

Atmospheric Conditions : Atmospheric conditions affect missile performance and travel distances. Factors such as temperature, humidity, and wind can impact trajectory and propulsion efficiency. For instance, high temperatures can change air density, affecting lift and drag. A report from the U.S. Air Force Research Laboratory (2022) highlighted that missiles could experience range reductions of up to 10% in adverse weather conditions.

These factors together create a complex picture of missile capabilities and operational parameters. Understanding how they interact helps in the analysis of current and future missile technologies.

How Do Emerging Technologies Impact Missile Range?

Emerging technologies significantly enhance missile range by improving guidance systems, propulsion methods, and overall targeting accuracy. Each of these advancements contributes to an increase in effective operational distance.

Enhanced guidance systems: Modern missiles utilize advanced navigation technology, such as GPS and inertial navigation systems. These systems enable precise targeting and reduce the likelihood of divergence from the intended path, thus maximizing the range. According to a study by Smith et al. (2022), the integration of these systems can increase effective range by up to 25%.

Improved propulsion technologies: New propulsion methods, including scramjet engines and advanced rocket propulsion, provide higher thrust and efficiency. Scramjets can operate at hypersonic speeds, significantly extending the maximum range of missiles. Research by Zhao and Liu (2021) indicates that hypersonic missiles can travel over 1,500 kilometers more than traditional ballistic missiles due to their speed and reduced flight time.

Enhanced targeting accuracy: Emerging technologies improve sensors and communication systems on missiles. Modern missiles may incorporate artificial intelligence-based targeting algorithms that assess and adapt to changing conditions. A report by Johnson (2023) highlighted that advanced targeting systems can increase hit probabilities by over 30%, effectively reducing the need for launching multiple missiles.

Increased stealth capabilities: Stealth technology reduces a missile’s radar signature. This capability allows missiles to evade detection, allowing for prolonged engagements and ultimately increases the range during which they can be effectively deployed. Research conducted by Carter (2022) shows that stealth-enhanced missiles can operate at ranges up to 50% further than conventional systems without being intercepted.

These advancements collectively manifest in longer-distance missile capabilities, ensuring more effective deterrence and engagement strategies in modern warfare.

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The US Navy has an upgraded Tomahawk: Here’s 5 things you should know

WASHINGTON – The U.S. Navy test-fired its new Block V Tomahawk from the destroyer Chafee in December, introducing the newest generation of the venerable Tomahawk cruise missile to its arsenal.

The modifications are designed to bring the sub-sonic cruise missile into the era of great power competition . Why is this Tomahawk different from all other Tomahawks, and can this old Cold Warrior keep up in the era of hypersonic missiles?

Here’s five things to know about the Block V:

1. Increased capabilities. Raytheon’s Tomahawk Block V, when fully realized in its Block Va and Block Vb varieties, will be expected to hit surface ships at Tomahawk ranges – in excess of 1,000 miles – with the integration of a new seeker. It also will integrate a new warhead that will have a broader range of capabilities, including greater penetrating power.

Tomahawk’s range is especially important in the Asia-Pacific, where China’s rocket force has extraordinary reach with its DF-26 and DF-21 missiles, with ranges of 2,490 and 1,335 miles respectively, according to the Center for Strategic and International Studies. The missiles are destined not just for the VLS launchers of surface ships but also on attack submarines . Read more here:

The US Navy is moving to put more ship-killer missiles on submarines

Us navy submarines will soon be able to kill ships at a range of 1,000 miles..

2. More survivable. The first iteration of the Block V upgrades the missile’s communication and navigation systems. This is about making it tougher to counter and detect electronically, said Bryan Clark, a retired submarine officer and senior fellow at The Hudson Institute.

“It has greater electronic hardening to be able to work through jamming more effectively,” Clark said. “The hardening and the electronic countermeasures they’ve put into it make it harder to find and target with radar, and that improves its survivability.

“They’ve incorporated a lot of survivability into Tomahawk over the years, this takes it a step further to make it less susceptible to jamming of its seeker or its communications. But it could, perhaps, also counter enemy radar that might be used to target it and shoot it down.”

In 2017, Raytheon’s Tomahawk program manager told reporters at an event at the missile plant in Tucson, Ariz., that the navigation system upgrades will ensure the missile can strike targets even if GPS is taken down .

3. Subsonic is a feature, not a bug. With all the emphasis on supersonic and hypersonic missiles and with the improvements in air defenses, that might make Tomahawk seem like a fuddy-duddy by comparison.

But there are good reasons to keep producing the Tomahawk, even with its slower speeds.

“The benefit of the sub-sonic missile is range,” Clark said. “Being sub-sonic means its also able to travel at a more fuel-efficient speed. So, the fact that the Tomahawk can travel more than 1,000 miles is a function of the sub-sonic speed. To get that kind of range out of a super-sonic missile you’d need something much larger.”

4. It’s cheap. Well, relatively so. The missile has been able to stay at the $1 million price range, which is on the low end for missiles. Raytheon’s supersonic SM-6 can reach speeds of Mach 3.5 – with future iterations believed to be capable of reaching hypersonic speeds – but cost more than four times as much per shot and have less range. That’s the Tomahawk’s key differentiator, said Jerry Hendrix, a retired Navy captain and analyst with Telemus Group.

“The key capability of Tomahawk is the cost.” Hendrix said. “It can be purchased in larger quantities and you can afford to lose some to defensive capabilities even as you penetrate. That’s one of the reasons why Tomahawk is going to be in the inventory for a while to come, even as it brings back that longer-range anti-ship capability that we’ve been missing for some time.”

Tom Karako, an expert in missile technology with the Center for Strategic and International Studies, agreed that cost is a big advantage of Tomahawk, especially for low-end missions.

“As long as they can keep them to about a million dollars per shot, the Navy is going to want those all day long,” Karako said. “The next time the President says to the Navy, ‘Hey, go schwack this terrorist training camp,’ they’re going to want Tomahawks.”

5. It’s all in the mix. The key to thinking about a sub-sonic cruise missile is understanding how it fits into a mix of weapons, Karako said. Not everything is going to be hypersonic or even supersonic, nor does it have to be, he argued, but the cost per salvo make it attractive as part of a varied and complex threat to present an adversary.

“The question is, ‘What’s the going to be the mix between hypersonic things and things that are supersonic and subsonic?’,” he said. “That, I think, is the right question. As long as you have standoff, subsonic and supersonic are going to be part of the equation.”

“Even for the high-end fight, I don’t think the hypersonic stuff will fully replace sub-sonic stuff. It might just mean you shoot your sub-sonic stuff earlier, let them fly for a while and everything arrives at the same time as part of how you structure an attack.”

Clark, the Hudson analyst, agreed that the mix was important, saying that even with the arrival of faster missiles, the Tomahawk has a place.

The combination of the SM-6, which has a surface strike mode, the new 100-plus-mile ranged anti-ship Naval Strike Missile bound for the littoral combat ships and next-generation frigate, and the Block V upgrades on Tomahawk, will give the Navy’s venerable birds a place in the service’s vertical launch system cells for some time to come, Clark said.

“Between Tomahawk Block V, the SM-6 and the NSM, the Navy has a collection of attack weapons that they are happy with,” he said, adding that a long-running effort to develop a next-generation land-attack weapon has lost some of its urgency.

The development of hypersonic missiles could, however, push out the Tomahawk down the road as the technology gets more advanced and of a size compatible with the Navy’s ubiquitous Mark 41 VLS launcher.

“What’s happening in parallel is in the development of hypersonic missile that are a smaller form factor than the boost-glide weapons that are coming to maturity now,” Clark said. “And if they can get it down to being able to fit in [the Mark 41], then that could provide the Navy a next-generation capability that is more survivable and has a shorter time of flight.

“So I think this combination of missiles the Navy has now, combined with the fact that the hypersonic weapons are coming along a little further out, means the Navy is going to stick with what it has potentially even longer than it had originally anticipated.”

David B. Larter was the naval warfare reporter for Defense News.

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Cruise Missiles vs Ballistic Missiles

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A Cruise Missile is a guided missile that flies with constant speed to deliver a warhead at specified target over long distance with high accuracy. A Ballistic Missile is lift off directly into the high layers of the earth’s atmosphere.

Cruise Missiles

Cruise missiles are unmanned vehicles that are propelled by jet engines, much like an airplane . They can be launched from ground, air, or sea platforms. Cruise missiles remain within the atmosphere for the duration of their flight and can fly as low as a few meters off the ground. Flying low to the surface of the earth expends more fuel but makes a cruise missile very difficult to detect. Cruise missiles are self-guided and use multiple methods to accurately deliver their payload, including terrain mapping, global positioning systems (GPS) and inertial guidance, which uses motion sensors and gyroscopes to keep the missile on a pre-programmed flight path. As advanced cruise missiles approach their target, remote operators can use a camera in the nose of the missile to see what the missile sees. This gives them the option to manually guide the missile to its target or to abort the strike.

• A cruise missile is a guided missile (target has to be pre-set) used against terrestrial targets.
• It remains in the atmosphere throughout its flight.
• It flies the major portion of its flight path at approximately constant speed.
• Cruise missiles are designed to deliver a large warhead over long distances with high precision.
• Modern cruise missiles are capable of travelling at supersonic or high subsonic speeds, are self-navigating, and are able to fly on a non-ballistic, extremely low-altitude trajectory.

Types of cruise missiles based on speed

• Hypersonic (Mach 5): These missiles would travel at least five times the speed of sound (Mach 5). E.g. BrahMos-II.
• Supersonic (Mach 2-3): These missiles travel faster than the speed of sound. E.g. BrahMos.
• Subsonic (Mach 0.8): These missiles travel slower than the speed of sound. E.g. Nirbhay.

Ballistic Missile

Ballistic missiles are powered initially by a rocket or series of rockets in stages, but then follow an unpowered trajectory that arches upwards before descending to reach its intended target . Ballistic missiles can carry either nuclear or conventional warheads. There are four general classifications of ballistic missiles based on their range, or the maximum distance the missile can travel:

• A ballistic missile follows a ballistic trajectory to deliver one or more warheads on a predetermined target.
• A ballistic trajectory is the path of an object that is lift of but has  no active propulsion during its actual flight  (these weapons are guided only during relatively brief periods of flight).
• Consequently, the trajectory is fully determined by a given  initial velocity, effects of gravity, air resistance, and motion of the earth ( Coriolis Force ).
• Shorter range ballistic missiles stay within the Earth’s atmosphere.
• Long-range intercontinental ballistic missiles  (ICBMs), are lift off on a sub-orbital flight trajectory and spend most of their flight out of the atmosphere.

Also read : petaFLOP Supercomputers

Types of ballistic missiles based on the range

• Short-range (tactical) ballistic missile (SRBM): Range between 300 km and 1,000 km.
• Medium-range (theatre) ballistic missile (MRBM): 1,000 km to 3,500 km.
• Intermediate-range (Long-Range) ballistic missile (IRBM or LRBM): 3,500 km and 5,500 km.
• Intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM): 5,500 km +

How Cruise Missiles different from Ballistic Missiles?

Cruise missiles are unmanned vehicles that are propelled by jet engines, much like an airplane. They can be lift off from ground, air, sea or submarine platforms . Cruise missiles remain within the atmosphere for the duration of their flight and can fly as low as a few meters off the ground. Flying low to the surface of the earth expends more fuel but makes a cruise missile very difficult to detect . Cruise missiles are self-guided and use multiple methods to accurately deliver their payload, including terrain mapping, global positioning systems (GPS) and inertial guidance.

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Ukraine Closes in on Long-Range JASSM Missile Deal With US

Washington is close to a deal in which it will give Kyiv long-range cruise missiles that can strike deep into Russia, it has been reported

Unnamed officials cited by Reuters said that Joint Air-to-Surface Standoff Missiles (JASSMs) will be part of a weapons package that is expected to be announced this fall, pending a final decision.

Retired Lieutenant General Ben Hodges , a former commander of the U.S. Army Europe, who has repeatedly called for Washington to commit to providing Kyiv with long-range weapons, welcomed the prospect of the missiles being given to Ukraine, but pointed out there had already been too much of a delay.

"I'm glad that they're considering it, but it highlights the utter failure to deliver these capabilities more than two years ago," he told Newsweek.

Newsweek contacted the White House and the Pentagon for comment.

The AGM-158A version of the missile has a 330-mile range, while the AGM-158B variant, 575 miles, potentially putting Russian staging areas and supply depots far from the front lines within striking distance of Ukraine's forces.

Politico reported in August that the Biden administration was "open" to giving Ukraine the weapons. They are 2,400-pound missiles that carry a 1,000-pound warhead and will bring into range up to 30 Russian airbases, some of which are used to launch attacks on Ukraine.

The JASSM is only integrated into U.S.-designed aircraft and Ukraine will be operating F-16s, which can carry two of the cruise missiles, Reuters said. Efforts are also under way to make the missile operable with the Soviet-era fighter jets Ukraine uses.

Washington has been reluctant to supply Ukraine with weapons that can strike targets deep inside Russian territory for fear of escalating the conflict. The delivery of JASSMs would add to pressure on the U.S. to drop restrictions on the use of its weaponry in the conflict, an unnamed congressional staffer told Reuters.

The U.S. is the biggest supplier of weapons, vehicles and supplies to Ukraine, including F-16s through third countries, Abrams tanks, cruise missiles and Patriot air defense systems.

Some members of Congress and political opponents have accused the Biden administration of being too slow in giving Kyiv what it needs to defeat Russia.

"What have we been waiting on?" said Hodges. "Why is the administration moving in slow motion, when it moves at all, to deliver the various capabilities to help Ukraine win the war, in time to have real effect?"

"Our immovable self-deterrence due to excessive fear of Russian escalation is going to be a stain on U.S. credibility in Europe," he added.

About the writer

Brendan Cole is a Newsweek Senior News Reporter based in London, UK. His focus is Russia and Ukraine, in particular the war started by Moscow. He also covers other areas of geopolitics including China. 

Brendan joined Newsweek in 2018 from the International Business Times and well as English, knows Russian and French.

You can get in touch with Brendan by emailing [email protected] or follow on him on his X account @brendanmarkcole.

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Biden could send Ukraine long-range cruise missiles soon

By Ryan Robertson (Anchor, Reporter)

The United States may soon send long-range cruise missiles to Ukraine . However, even if a deal were approved tomorrow, it would take several months before Ukraine could actually use them against Russia .

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According to three sources within the White House, Reuters reported President Biden may approve sending AGM-158 JASSMs (Joint Air-to-Surface Standoff Missiles) to Ukraine, with an official announcement expected this fall.

The JASSMs, stealthy air-launched cruise missiles built by Lockheed Martin , are widely available in the U.S. arsenal. In fact, the U.S. Air Force has so many that it is exploring ways to launch them from cargo planes by the pallet. The missiles are compatible with most strike aircraft in the U.S. inventory, including the F-16s Ukraine is now flying. One F-16 can carry two JASSMs.

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Efforts are also underway to potentially retrofit Ukraine’s Soviet-era jets to carry these missiles , according to one of the White House sources.

Zelenskyy says Kursk incursion part of plan to end war with Russia

The weapon comes in two versions: the original JASSM, with a range of about 230 miles, and the extended range JASSM-ER, which can say “hello” to enemy targets over 600 miles away.

Both variants are designed to be all-weather weapons, using GPS for guidance and switching to infrared cameras in the final stage of attack. Those features make them more resistant to electronic jamming, if the Russians could detect them.

The missiles are hard to pick up on radar due to their outer coating and overall design. They can also be programmed to avoid areas with active enemy radar. Russia is already struggling to counter British and French-supplied stealth cruise missiles, and one can expect that challenge to continue if the U.S. approves sending JASSMs to Ukraine.

Focusing on range, the standard JASSM would allow Ukraine to strike over two dozen Russian military targets that are within its striking distance, including the entirety of Crimea, which Russia illegally seized in 2014. If the extended range version is provided, the number of targets would increase significantly.

Calls grow for Biden to lift restrictions on US weapons in Ukraine

However, there is currently a ban on Ukraine using U.S. weapons to strike targets deep in Russia. Although there have been a few exceptions , Ukraine is being forced to largely sit and watch as Russia moves troops and equipment far from the frontlines with relative safety. A deal to send JASSMs could potentially alter these restrictions.

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Russia opposes sending JASSMs to Ukraine and lifting the U.S. restrictions.

Russian Foreign Minister Sergei Lavrov warned the U.S. and others should not laugh at Russia’s red lines . Lavrov also warned of potential nuclear retaliation. But with previous Russian “red lines” involving tanks , ATACMS and F-16s crossed without consequence, many now say Russia’s red lines are “pointless.” Even Ukraine’s incursion into Kursk , the first time Russia was invaded since WWII, did not spark a nuclear response from Russia.

Reuters contributed to this report.

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• US will arm Ukraine’s F-16s, boosting air defense capabilities

THE UNITED STATES MAY SEND UKRAINE LONG-RANGE CRUISE MISSILES. EVEN IF A DEAL WAS APPROVED TOMORROW, THOUGH, IT WOULD TAKE SEVERAL MONTHS BEFORE THE UKRAINIANS COULD ACTUALLY USE THEM AGAINST RUSSIA.

REUTERS IS REPORTING THREE DIFFERENT SOURCES WITHIN THE WHITE HOUSE SAID THE PRESIDENT MAY APPROVE SENDING AGM-158 JASSMs, OR JOINT AIR-TO-SURFACE STANDOFF MISSILES TO UKRAINE. THE OFFICIAL ANNOUNCEMENT COULD COME THIS FALL.

JASSMs ARE STEALTHY AIR-LAUNCHED CRUISE MISSILES BUILT BY LOCKHEED MARTIN. THE UNITED STATES HAS A LOT OF THEM. SO MANY, THE AIR FORCE IS NOW LOOKING AT WAYS TO LAUNCH THEM OUT OF THE BACK OF CARGO PLANES BY THE PALLET.

THEY ALSO FIT MOST OF THE STRIKE AIRCRAFT IN THE U.S. INVENTORY WHICH MEANS THEY CAN FIT ON THE U.S.-DESIGNED F-16s UKRAINE IS NOW FLYING. ONE F-16 CAN CARRY TWO JASSMs. BUT ACCORDING TO ONE OF THOSE WHITE HOUSE SOURCES, THERE ARE EFFORTS UNDERWAY TO RETRO-FIT UKRAINE’S SOVIET-ERA JETS SO THEY CAN ALSO JUMP ON THE JASSM TRAIN.

THE WEAPON COMES IN TWO BASIC VARIATIONS. THE ORIGINAL JASSM HAS A RANGE OF ABOUT 230 MILES. THE JASSM-ER, OR EXTENDED RANGE, CAN SAY HELLO TO ENEMIES A LITTLE OVER 600 MILES AWAY. MORE ON RANGE IN A MINUTE.

BOTH VARIANTS ARE DESIGNED TO BE ALL-WEATHER WEAPONS. THE MISSILE IS GUIDED BY GPS TO THE TARGET, BUT SWITCHES TO AN INFRARED CAMERA DURING ITS FINAL STAGE OF ATTACK, MAKING IT A BIT MORE RESILIENT TO ELECTRONIC JAMMING. IF THE RUSSIANS COULD EVEN TRACK THEM. THE OUTER COATING OF THE MISSILE AND ITS OVERALL DESIGN MAKE IT VERY HARD TO DETECT ON RADAR, AND THEY CAN BE PROGRAMMED TO AVOID AIRSPACE WHERE ENEMY RADAR IS KNOWN TO BE ACTIVE. THE RUSSIANS ARE ALREADY HAVING TROUBLE STOPPING BRITISH AND FRENCH SUPPLIED STEALTH CRUISE MISSILES. WE CAN EXPECT THOSE DILEMMAS TO CONTINUE IF WASHINGTON DOES INDEED APPROVE SENDING THE WEAPONS.

SPEAKING OF DILEMMAS, I WANT TO GO BACK TO THE TOPIC OF RANGE AND HOW UKRAINE COULD USE THAT FEATURE OF THESE WEAPONS TO CREATE A LOT OF DILEMMAS FOR RUSSIA.

SO, HERE’S THE BATTLESPACE. THIS LINE AROUND UKRAINE HERE REPRESENTS THE RANGE OF THE AGM-158A, OR THE ORIGINAL VERSION OF THE JOINT AIR-TO-SURFACE STANDOFF MISSILE.

STANDOFF MEANS THE WEAPON CAN BE FIRED FROM A FAR ENOUGH DISTANCE THAT THE PILOT AND PLANE DOING THE SHOOTING WON’T BE PUT IN DANGER.

WHAT WILL BE PUT IN DANGER ARE THESE RUSSIAN MILITARY BASES. THERE ARE MORE THAN TWO DOZEN OF THESE FACILITIES WHICH ARE WITHIN RANGE OF JASSMS, INCLUDING THE WHOLE OF CRIMEA WHICH RUSSIA ILLEGALLY SEIZED IN 2014. AND IF THE WHITE HOUSE AGREES TO SEND THE EXTENDED RANGE VARIETY OF JASSM–WEL, THE NUMBER OF DILEMMAS RUSSIA WOULD FACE WOULD GROW DRAMATICALLY.

‘BUT RYAN, ISN’T THERE A BAN ON UKRAINE USING US WEAPONS TO STRIKE TARGETS DEEP IN RUSSIA?’ YES, FRIENDS, THERE IS. AND I’VE REPORTED PRETTY EXTENSIVELY ON IT BEFORE, SO BE SURE TO CHECK IT OUT AT SAN.COM FOR THE FULL BREAKDOWN. D.C. DID MAKE A FEW EXCEPTIONS HERE AND THERE, BUT FOR THE MOST PART, UKRAINE JUST HAS TO SIT AND WATCH AS RUSSIA MOVES TROOPS AND EQUIPMENT AROUND WITH RELATIVE SAFETY DEEP BEHIND THE FRONTLINES.

WHICH IS WHY THE DEAL TO SEND JASSMs TO UKRAINE COULD ALSO INCLUDE AN ALTERATION OF THE RESTRICTIONS KYIV FACES WHEN USING U.S.-MADE WEAPONS.

RUSSIA, FOR GOOD REASON, IS NOT A FAN OF SENDING JASSMs TO UKRAINE OR OF THE U.S. LIFTING ITS RESTRICTIONS. RUSSIAN FOREIGN MINISTER SERGEI LAVROV SAID THE U.S. SHOULDN’T LAUGH AT RUSSIA’S RED LINES, AND THE POSSIBILITY OF A NUCLEAR RETALIATION REMAINS.

BUT TANKS, ATACMS, F-16s–THOSE WERE ALL RUSSIAN RED LINES AS WELL, AND WERE ALL CROSSED WITH NO NUCLEAR STRIKE. UKRAINE’S INCURSION INTO KURSK ALSO CROSSED A RUSSIAN RED LINE, AND WITH SO MANY RUSSIAN RED LINES BEING CROSSED, THERE’S A GROWING BELIEF THEY MAY BE POINTLESS.

I REPORTED ON THAT TOO, AND YOU CAN FIND THE STORY AT SAN.COM OR ON THE STRAIGHT ARROW NEWS APP.

FOR STRAIGHT ARROW NEWS, I’M RYAN ROBERTSON.

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US close to agreeing on long-range missiles for Ukraine; delivery to take months

By Mike Stone, Patricia Zengerle and Gerry Doyle

WASHINGTON (Reuters) - The U.S. is close to an agreement to give Ukraine long-range cruise missiles that could reach deep into Russia, but Kyiv would need to wait several months as the U.S. works through technical issues ahead of any shipment, U.S. officials said.

The inclusion of Joint Air-to-Surface Standoff Missiles (JASSM) in a weapons package is expected to be announced this autumn, three sources said, though a final decision has not been made. The sources declined to be named because they are not authorized to discuss the topic.

Sending JASSMs to Ukraine could significantly alter the strategic landscape of the conflict by putting more of Russia in range of powerful, precision-guided munitions, an important concern of the Biden administration, the officials said.

Military analysts have suggested the introduction of JASSMs - which are stealthy and can strike further than most other missiles in Ukraine's current inventory - could push Russian staging areas and supply depots back by hundreds of miles.

This would severely complicate Russia's ability to sustain its offensive operations and potentially provide Ukraine with a strategic advantage.

Launching them from points near Ukraine's northern border with Russia could allow them to hit military installations as far away as the Russian cities of Voronezh and Bryansk. In the south, dropping them near the front lines could enable strikes on airfields or naval facilities in Crimea.

The JASSM has so far only been integrated into U.S.-designed aircraft. Ukraine will ultimately operate several dozen F-16s, each of which can carry two of the cruise missiles.

One of the U.S. officials said there were efforts to make the missile operable with non-Western fighter jets in Ukraine's inventory, which has not been reported previously. Although the official did not provide further detail on which jets in Ukraine's inventory JASSM could be used with, they operate Soviet-era MiG-29, Su-24 and Su-27 jets.

Politico reported last month the Biden administration was "open" to giving Ukraine JASSMs.

Ukraine's need for more arms, and more powerful weaponry, is growing as it continues to face intense pressure from Russian forces along its eastern front.

Older-model JASSMs, which are made by Lockheed Martin Corp, have a range of about 230 miles (370 km). The missiles, about 14 feet (4 m) long, are designed to be somewhat stealthy, making them difficult to spot on radar. They can also fly close to the ground and can be programmed to take circuitous routes that avoid air defenses.

There is also a longer-range JASSM missile that can fly more than 500 miles. Reuters could not immediately establish which of the two types Washington was considering, but providing the shorter-range missiles would put less strain on its stockpiles.

Giving Ukraine JASSMs would also add pressure for Washington to drop restrictions on how Ukraine uses U.S. weaponry because their effects would be limited if they were not cleared for use on targets inside Russia, said a congressional staffer who works on the issue.

The U.S. has been reluctant to supply weapons that could strike targets deep inside in Russia for fear it would escalate the conflict. Kyiv's allies have been supplying weapons but with restrictions on how and when they can be used inside Russia, out of concern such strikes could prompt retaliation that draws NATO countries into the war or provokes a nuclear conflict.

Each JASSM has a large, 1,000-pound warhead, but unlike the Storm Shadow and SCALP missiles already provided to Kyiv by Britain and France, it is not explicitly designed to penetrate hardened bunkers. The newest versions cost about $1 million each.

Global Positioning System (GPS) signals and an inertial navigation system provide guidance. When it nears its target, an infrared imaging seeker can help steer it to an impact point with an accuracy of about 10 feet (3 m).

Although older models might be less resistant to electronic warfare than the current iteration of JASSM, the infrared seeker would help it find its target even amid heavy jamming, said George William Herbert of the Middlebury Institute of International Studies at Monterey in California.

"They're pretty stealthy, but not completely designed around maximum stealth," Herbert said. "A few years ago, a bunch were fired at Syria after chemical weapons incidents, and Russian air defense systems in the country failed to shoot many down, possibly none of them.

"I would expect that carefully planned missile flight paths would let JASSM be effective almost anywhere in the war area."

(Reporting by Mike Stone and Patricia Zengerle in Washington and Gerry Doyle in Singapore; Editing by Chris Sanders, Rosalba O'Brien and Stephen Coates)

Indian nuclear weapons, 2024

By Hans M. Kristensen , Matt Korda , Eliana Johns , Mackenzie Knight | September 5, 2024

India continues to modernize its nuclear arsenal, with at least four new weapon systems and several new delivery platforms under development to complement or replace existing nuclear-capable aircraft, land-based delivery systems, and sea-based systems. Several of these systems are nearing completion and will soon be fielded. We estimate that India may have produced enough military plutonium for 130 to 210 nuclear warheads but likely has produced only around 172, although the country’s warhead stockpile is likely growing. The Nuclear Notebook is researched and written by the staff of the Federation of American Scientists’ Nuclear Information Project: director Hans M. Kristensen, associate director Matt Korda, senior research associates Eliana Johns and Mackenzie Knight.

This article is freely available in PDF format in the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists’ digital magazine (published by Taylor & Francis) at this link . To cite this article, please use the following citation, adapted to the appropriate citation style: Hans M. Kristensen, Matt Korda, Eliana Johns, and Mackenzie Knight, Indian nuclear weapons, 2024, Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists , 80:5, 326-342, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00963402.2024.2388470

To see all previous Nuclear Notebook columns in the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists dating back to 1987, go to https://thebulletin.org/nuclear-notebook/.

India continues to modernize its nuclear weapons arsenal and operationalize its nascent triad. We estimate that India currently operates eight different nuclear-capable systems: two aircraft, five land-based ballistic missiles, and one sea-based ballistic missile. At least five more systems are in development, most of which are thought to be nearing completion and to be fielded with the armed forces soon.

Research methodology and confidence

The Indian government does not publish numbers about the size of its nuclear weapon stockpile. The analyses and estimates made in the Nuclear Notebook are therefore derived from a combination of open sources: (1) state-originating data (e.g. government statements, declassified documents, budgetary information, military parades, and treaty disclosure data); (2) non-state-originating data (e.g. media reports, think tank analyses, and industry publications); and (3) commercial satellite imagery. Because each of these sources provides different and limited information that is subject to varying degrees of uncertainty, we crosscheck each data point by using multiple sources and supplementing them with private conversations with officials whenever possible.

Collecting and analyzing accurate information about India’s nuclear forces is a more challenging effort than for many other nuclear-armed states. India has never disclosed the size of its nuclear stockpile, and Indian officials do not regularly comment on the capabilities of the country’s nuclear arsenal. Although some official information can be derived from parliamentary inquiries, budget documents, government statements, and other sources, India generally maintains a culture of relative opacity regarding its nuclear arsenal. India has previously refused to divulge the costs of certain nuclear weapon programs, and in 2016, the Indian government added Strategic Forces Command to a list of security organizations exempt from India’s Right to Information Act, thereby inhibiting journalists, researchers, and the public from getting access to critical information about India’s nuclear arsenal (Government of India 2016; Sarkar 2021). In addition, in contrast to geopolitical competitors like China or Russia, the United States does not typically publish assessments of India’s nuclear arsenal; one US Air Force publication that used to provide information has not been published since early 2021, and that version appeared to include information that was watered down and out of date.

While the Indian government rarely provides official statements about its nuclear arsenal, the Ministry of Defence’s Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) often publishes useful details about the weapon systems that it is developing. These details can be found in monographs, monthly reports, and other publications. While these reports very rarely include details specifically about India’s nuclear program, they sometimes offer data points about dual-capable delivery systems that can be leveraged for analysis.

In the absence of much official information from the Indian government and military and from Western governments, local news and media outlets tend to embellish details about the country’s nuclear arsenal. For example, some outlets regularly claim that certain weapon systems are “nuclear-capable,” despite a lack of any official evidence to that effect. Many news publications also tend to rely on anonymous “sources” for military information without indicating or providing evidence that these sources have actual familiarity with the systems that they are describing.

To that end, we generally rely on official sources and images—as well as commercially or freely-available satellite imagery—to analyze India’s nuclear arsenal and, whenever possible, try to corroborate the credibility of any unofficial claims with multiple sources. Satellite imagery can be particularly useful in monitoring construction at military facilities, as well as identifying which types of missiles, vessels, or aircraft are present at bases. In particular, the research of open-source analysts, such as @tinfoil_globe on the social media platform X (formerly Twitter), has proven to be highly valuable in analyzing Indian military bases using satellite imagery. In certain cases, useful imagery about nuclear systems can also be obtained through social media posts—both from military and civilian accounts—and can be used in conjunction with satellite imagery for more concrete analysis.

Fissile material and warhead inventory estimates

India is one of only a handful of countries believed to be producing both highly enriched uranium (HEU) and weapons-grade plutonium, although its HEU production is largely assumed to be focused on producing fuel for its growing number of nuclear-powered vessels and submarines (Frieß et al. 2024).

India’s source of weapons-grade plutonium has been the operational Dhruva plutonium production reactor at the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre complex near Mumbai, and until 2010 the CIRUS reactor at the same location. In March 2024, after more than a decade of delays, India also completed construction and initiated the core loading of its first unsafeguarded 500-megawatt Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor at the Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research near Kalpakkam (Department of Atomic Energy, 2024). The new reactor produces more plutonium 239 than it consumes during the fission process, and therefore could increase India’s future plutonium production significantly if the reactor is operated effectively. The director of the research center has additionally stated that six more fast breeder reactors will come online within the next 15 years (Kumar 2018).

As of the beginning of 2023, the International Panel on Fissile Materials estimated India to have produced approximately 680 kilograms (plus or minus about 160 kilograms) of weapon-grade plutonium (Frieß et al. 2024). Assuming approximately four kilograms of plutonium per warhead, this would theoretically be sufficient for producing anywhere between 130 and 210 nuclear warheads. However, there are some caveats that come with this calculation due to several uncertainties. Most notably, it is unclear whether India is prioritizing the development and production of higher-yield thermonuclear weapons, lower-yield fission-only weapons, boosted single-stage weapons, or any combination of these designs; these could all use different amounts of plutonium enriched to different levels. India’s 1998 nuclear tests reliably validated a fission design, but the country’s progress on boosted fission and thermonuclear weapon designs remains highly uncertain (Albright 1998; Levy 2015). It is also likely that India has not used all its plutonium to produce warheads but may have kept some in reserve.

The size of India’s nuclear stockpile also depends on the number and types of launchers that can deliver them, as it is unlikely that most nuclear-armed states would produce significantly larger numbers of warheads than they can actually launch. Based on available information about its nuclear-capable delivery force structure and strategy, we estimate that India has produced around 172 nuclear warheads (see Table 1). It will need more warheads to arm the new missiles that it is currently developing.

Nuclear doctrine

Tensions between India and Pakistan constitute one of the most concerning nuclear hotspots on the planet. These two nuclear-armed countries engaged in open hostilities as recently as November 2020, when Indian and Pakistani soldiers exchanged artillery and gunfire over the Line of Control, resulting in at least 22 deaths. The clash followed another incident in February 2019, when Indian fighters dropped bombs near the Pakistani town of Balakot in response to a suicide bombing conducted by a Pakistan-based militant group. In retaliation, Pakistani aircraft shot down and captured an Indian pilot before returning him a week later. The skirmish escalated into the nuclear realm when it triggered a convening of Pakistan’s National Command Authority, the body that oversees Pakistan’s nuclear arsenal. Speaking to the media at the time, a senior Pakistani official noted: “I hope you know what the [National Command Authority] means and what it constitutes. I said that we will surprise you. Wait for that surprise.… You have chosen a path of war without knowing the consequence for the peace and security of the region” (Abbasi 2019).

In this context, the risk of conflict escalation between India and Pakistan remains dangerously high. In March 2022, India accidentally launched what appeared to be a BrahMos conventional ground-launched cruise missile 124 kilometers into Pakistani territory, damaging civilian property. Pakistani officials subsequently claimed that India did not alert them using the high-level military hotline, and India did not even issue a public statement about the accident until two days later (Dawn 2022). In the absence of any de-escalation measures from India, Pakistan reportedly suspended all military and civilian aircraft for nearly six hours and placed frontline bases and strike aircraft on high alert (Bhatt 2022). If this same accidental launch had taken place during a period of heightened tensions, it is possible that the incident could have escalated into a very dangerous phase (Korda 2022).

While India’s primary deterrence relationship historically has been with Pakistan, its nuclear modernization indicates that it is putting increased emphasis on its future strategic relationship with China. In November 2021, the then-Indian Chief of Defence Staff stated in a press conference that China had become India’s biggest security threat (Sen 2021). Additionally, nearly all of India’s new Agni missiles have ranges that suggest China is their primary target. This posture is likely to have been reinforced after the 2017 Doklam standoff during which Chinese and Indian troops were placed on high alert over a dispute near the Bhutanese border. Tensions have remained high in subsequent years, particularly following another border skirmish in June 2020 that resulted in the deaths of both Chinese and Indian soldiers. Further casualties have been reported due to Chinese-Indian military skirmishes as recently as January 2021 (BBC 2021).

The expected expansion of India’s nuclear forces increasingly focused on a militarily superior China (in terms of both conventional and nuclear forces) will result in new capabilities being deployed over the next decade. This development could potentially also influence how India views the role of its nuclear weapons against Pakistan. According to one analyst, “[W]e may be witnessing what I call a ‘decoupling’ of Indian nuclear strategy between China and Pakistan. The force requirements India needs in order to credibly threaten assured retaliation against China may allow it to pursue more aggressive strategies—such as escalation dominance or a ‘splendid first strike’—against Pakistan” (Narang 2017). (A “splendid first strike” is an initial attack with nuclear weapons that completely disables the enemy’s nuclear capability, ensuring that there will be no retaliation).

India has long adhered to a nuclear no-first-use policy. This policy, however, was weakened by India’s 2003 declaration that it could potentially use nuclear weapons in response to chemical or biological attacks—which would therefore constitute nuclear first use, even if it were in retaliation. Moreover, amid the 2016 border skirmishes with Pakistan, India’s then-defense minister Manohar Parrikar indicated that India should not “bind” itself to the no-first-use policy (Som 2016). Although the Indian government later explained that the minister’s remarks represented his personal opinion, the debate highlighted the conditions under which India would consider using nuclear weapons. Current defense minister Rajnath Singh has also publicly questioned India’s future commitment to its no-first-use policy, tweeting in August 2019 that “India has strictly adhered to this doctrine. What happens in the future depends on the circumstances” (R. Singh 2019). Recent scholarship has further called India’s commitment to its no-first-use policy into question, with some analysts asserting that “India’s NFU [no-first-use] policy is neither a stable nor a reliable predictor of how the Indian military and political leadership might actually use nuclear weapons” (Sundaram and Ramana 2018). Despite questions about the future of India’s NFU policy, it might have served to limit somewhat the scope and strategy of Indian nuclear forces for the first two decades of its nuclear era.

Additionally, although India has long been thought to store its nuclear warheads separately from deployed launchers, some analysts have suggested that at least some nuclear bombs are co-located with aircraft on bases in underground bunkers for rapid mating if necessary and that India might be moving toward “pre-mating” some warheads with ballistic missiles in canisters for a subsection of the missile force (Narang 2013). The term “pre-mating” appears to imply the warhead is not actually mated with the missile but in a near-complete status nearby so the warhead can be readied and mated on short notice if needed. Before mating, the warheads would have to be brought out from storage and mated with the missile in a special handling facility. One potential but unconfirmed candidate for such a facility is located near Morki (Figure 1).

There is still uncertainty about the readiness of the arsenal on a day-to-day basis, not least because the only two canisterized missiles—Agni-V and Agni-P—are not yet operationally deployed, and India’s only deployed submarine appears currently to be more of a training platform and technology demonstrator. But this trend may deepen with deployment of operational canisterized launchers and India’s development of a sea-based leg of its nuclear triad, which for the United States and Russia has typically involved mating warheads with missiles.

Fighter-bombers were India’s first and only nuclear strike force until 2003, when the Prithvi-II nuclear-capable ballistic missile was fielded. Despite considerable progress since then in building a diverse arsenal of land-and sea-based ballistic missiles, aircraft continue to serve a prominent role as a flexible strike force in India’s nuclear posture. We estimate that three or four squadrons of Mirage 2000H and Jaguar IS aircraft at three bases are assigned nuclear strike missions against Pakistan and China.

The Mirage 2000H Vajra (“divine thunder”), which is likely India’s primary nuclear strike aircraft, is deployed with the 1st, 7th, and possibly the 9th squadrons of the 40th Wing at Maharajpur (Gwalior) Air Force Station in northern Madhya Pradesh. We estimate that one or two of these squadrons has a secondary nuclear mission. Indian Mirage aircraft also occasionally operate from the Nal (Bikaner) Air Force Station in western Rajasthan, and other bases might potentially function as nuclear dispersal bases as well.

The Indian Mirage 2000H, which was originally supplied by France, is undergoing upgrades to extend its service life and enhance its capabilities to include new radar, avionics, and electronic warfare systems. India signed a $2.1 billion deal with French company Thales in 2011 to upgrade 51 Mirage 2000H aircraft to the Mirage 2000–5 standard. Although the modernization program was scheduled to be completed by the end of 2021, the program is behind schedule, with only about half of the aircraft having been modernized by the expected deadline (Philip 2022). India does not have domestic manufacturing capability for the Mirage aircraft, and as France phases out Mirage aircraft in favor of the new Rafale aircraft, India will face difficulties in maintaining its fleet. To maintain its existing fighter jets for another decade, India’s Air Force signed deals with France in 2020 and 2021 for a total of 40 Mirage 2000 aircraft that have been phased out of the French Air Force. India will use the scavenged parts to upkeep its existing Mirage squadrons (Yelwe 2024). India is also reportedly in discussions with Qatar for the purchase of 12 second-hand Mirage 2000-5 aircraft, which officials stated would be for flying operations, not spare parts ( Hindustan Times 2024a).

The Indian Air Force also operates four squadrons of Jaguar IS/IB Shamsher (“Sword of Justice”) aircraft at three bases (a fifth squadron flies the naval IM version). These include the 5th and 14th squadrons of the 7th Wing at Ambala Air Force Station in northwestern Haryana, the 16th and 27th squadrons of the 17th Wing at Gorakhpur Air Force Station in northeastern Uttar Pradesh, and the 6th and 224th squadrons of the 33rd Wing at Jamnagar Air Force Station in southwestern Gujarat. We estimate that one or two of the squadrons at Ambala and Gorakhpur (one at each base) might be assigned a secondary nuclear strike mission. Jaguar aircraft also occasionally operate from the Nal (Bikaner) Air Force Station in western Rajasthan. The Jaguar, designed jointly by France and Britain, was nuclear-capable when deployed by those countries.

The Indian Air Force has operated the Jaguar since the 1980s. Due to its age, the aircraft might be retired from the nuclear mission soon if it has not been already. Half of the Jaguars have received the so-called DARIN-III precision-attack and avionics upgrade since 2017 (Ministry of Defence 2017), but the upgrade of the second half of the inventory was scrapped in August 2019 due to its prohibitive cost and long timeline. Instead, the Indian Air Force will reportedly phase out its Jaguar fleet over the next 10 years. In October 2019, India’s Air Chief Marshal declared that the Indian Air Force’s six Jaguar squadrons of approximately 108 fighters would begin retiring in early 2020 (Shukla 2019); however, this was pushed back, potentially to bring India closer to its goal of maintaining enough squadrons to simultaneously deter both Pakistan and China over the coming decade (Shukla 2021a). In 2023, the Indian Air Force outlined its plans for retiring the Jaguar starting in 2027–2028. The plan includes a phased approach with complete retirement expected by 2035. India plans to replace the Jaguar with the indigenously produced Tejas Mark 2 (Mk-2) fighter jet currently under development (Kunde 2023).

On September 23, 2016, India and France signed an agreement for delivery of 36 Rafale aircraft (Ministry of Defence 2017). The order was considerably reduced from initial plans to buy 126 Rafales. The Rafale is used for the nuclear mission in the French Air Force, and India could potentially convert it to serve a similar role in the Indian Air Force, with an eye toward taking over the air-based nuclear strike role in the future. The Indian defense minister formally received the first Rafale (tail number RB-001) at a special ceremony in France in October 2019, and the full shipment of 36 aircraft was completed on-schedule by April 2022 ( Hindustan Times 2022). All 36 Rafales are outfitted with 13 “India-Specific Enhancements,” which include new radars, cold-weather engine start-up devices, 10-hour flight data recorders, helmet-mounted display sights, and electronic warfare and friend-or-foe identification systems (Dominguez 2019).

The Rafales are being deployed in two equally sized squadrons of 18 fighters and four dual-seat trainers: one squadron (17th “Golden Arrows” Squadron) at Ambala Air Base Station, located only 220 kilometers from the Pakistani border, and the other squadron (101st “Falcons of Chamb and Akhnoor” Squadron) at Hasimara Air Force Station in West Bengal. New infrastructure developments to accommodate the planes are being constructed at both bases, and the Indian Air Force has reinstated the squadrons to active duty after they had both been decommissioned years earlier (Indian Air Force 2021).

As of July 2024, French manufacturer Dassault Aviation SA is reportedly advancing plans to construct a Maintenance, Repair, and Overhaul (MRO) facility near Jewar International Airport, which will allow India to locally manufacture future Rafale aircraft as part of Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s “Make In India” initiative. Engine manufacturer Safran SA also has plans to build an MRO facility at Hyderabad for Rafale engines (Gupta 2024).

The Indian and French governments began negotiations in May 2024 for the purchase of 26 Rafale Marine fighter jets to operate from India’s INS Vikrant and INS Vikramaditya aircraft carriers ( The Economic Times 2024a).

Land-based ballistic missiles

The Indian Army possesses five types of mobile land-based, nuclear-capable ballistic missiles that appear to be operational: the short-range Prithvi-II and Agni-I, the medium-range Agni-II, and the intermediate-range Agni-III and Agni-IV. At least two other Agni missiles are in development and nearing deployment: the medium-range Agni-P and the intermediate-range Agni-V. A new intercontinental-range Agni-VI missile is also thought to be in the design stage, although its status is unclear.

It remains to be seen how many of these missile types India plans to keep in its arsenal. Some may serve as technology development programs toward longer-range missiles. While the Indian government has made no statements about the future size or composition of its land-based missile force, it is possible that redundant missile types could potentially be discontinued or that only medium- and long-range missiles might be deployed in the future to provide a mix of strike options against Pakistan and China. Unconfirmed reports have also hinted that India could reconfigure some of its nuclear medium-range ballistic missiles for conventional strike roles, though it is unclear if and when this may happen due to the lack of additional information (Dubey 2023). In any case, the government appears to be planning to field a diverse missile force and may have around 80 operational land-based missiles as of July 2024.

The process for deploying Indian missiles is relatively opaque and uses some specific terms that are not used in other countries, which makes it more complex to piece together. Based on media reporting, press statements, and development timelines, the process appears to be as follows: Following the design and development of the missile by India’s DRDO, missile systems undergo design and successive development trials, followed by pre-induction flight tests and night launches. This usually takes several years and is accomplished in collaboration with the Strategic Forces Command, which is part of India’s Nuclear Command Authority and is responsible for operating and managing India’s nuclear weapons. Then, after typically three to five trials to validate the missile’s flight and technological systems, the missiles can be “inducted” into service, which means they are handed over to the armed forces. “Induction,” however, does not mean the missiles are operational, as they require additional user trials to achieve operational deployment status.

The short-range Prithvi-II missile was India’s first missile to be developed under the “Integrated Guided Missile Development Program” for nuclear deterrence, according to the Indian government (Press Information Bureau 2013). The missile can deliver a nuclear or conventional warhead to a range of 350 kilometers. Given the relatively small size of the Prithvi missile (nine meters long and one meter in diameter), the launcher is difficult to spot in satellite images and little is known about its deployment locations. It is thought India has four Prithvi missile groups (222, 333, 444, and 555) of which an estimated 24 launchers may have a nuclear mission. Potential locations include Jalandhar in Punjab, as well as Banar, Bikaner, and Jodhpur in Rajasthan.

The two-stage, solid-fuel, road-mobile Agni-I missile became operational in 2007, three years after its induction into the armed forces. The short-range missile can deliver a nuclear or conventional warhead to a distance of approximately 700 kilometers. The mission of Agni-I is thought to be focused on targeting Pakistan; we estimate that around 16 launchers are deployed in western India, possibly including the 334th Missile Group. In September 2020, India used an Agni-I booster to conduct a test of its developmental scramjet-powered Hypersonic Technology Demonstrator Vehicle (Jha 2020). Satellite imagery from September 2023 appears to show two Agni-I transporters at a garrison near Jodhpur, although it is unclear whether this is a temporary visit or semi-permanent deployment. In 2023, India conducted test launches of the Prithvi-II and the Agni-I, both of which were described by the Indian Ministry of Defence as “proven systems” (Government of India 2023a; 2023b).

The two-stage, solid-fuel, rail-mobile Agni-II—an improvement on the Agni-I—can deliver a nuclear or conventional warhead to a distance of more than 2,000 kilometers. The missile may have been inducted into the armed forces in 2008, but technical issues delayed its operational capability until 2011. Around 16 launchers are thought to be deployed in northern India, possibly including the 335th Missile Group. Targeting is probably focused on western, central, and southern China. Although the Agni-II appeared to suffer from technical issues and failed several of its previous test launches, more recent successful tests in 2018 and 2019 indicate that previous technical issues could have since been resolved ( The Hindu 2019; Liu 2018).

The Agni-III—a two-stage, solid-fuel, rail-mobile, intermediate-range ballistic missile—can deliver a nuclear warhead to a distance of over 3,200 kilometers. Following its first failed night trial in 2019, India conducted a second night trial on November 23, 2022, which was successful (Rout 2022). We estimate around 16 Agni-III launchers are deployed, though the full operational status is uncertain. The longer range potentially allows India to deploy the Agni-III units further back from the Pakistani and Chinese borders, which would make it the first missile to bring Beijing within range of Indian nuclear weapons.

India has also deployed the Agni-IV missile—a two-stage, solid-fuel, road-and rail-mobile intermediate-range ballistic missile with the capability to deliver a single nuclear warhead to a distance of over 3,500 kilometers (Ministry of Defence 2014). Following its final development test in 2014, the Strategic Forces Command has since conducted four user launches, the most recent taking place in June 2022 (Government of India 2022).

Although the Agni-IV will be capable of striking targets in nearly all of China from locations in northeastern India, the Strategic Forces Command is also in the process of inducting the longer-range Agni-V—a three-stage, solid-fuel, road-mobile, near-intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) capable of delivering a warhead to a distance of less than 6,000 kilometers. The extra range will allow the Indian military to establish Agni-V bases in central and southern India, further away from the Chinese border.

The Agni-V missile will bring another important new capability to the Indian strike force. The Agni-V is carried in a sealed canister on the launcher, meaning the warhead can be permanently mated with the missile, which is stored in a sealed, climate-controlled tube, instead of having to be installed prior to launch (Korda and Kristensen 2021). The first two test-launches used a rail launcher, but since 2015, all launches have been conducted from a road-mobile launcher. The launcher, which is known as the Transport-cum-Tilting vehicle-5 (TCT-5), is a 140-ton, 30-meter, 7-axle trailer pulled by a 3-axle Volvo truck (DRDO Newsletter 2014). The canister design “will reduce the reaction time drastically… just a few minutes from ‘stop-to-launch,’” the former head of India’s Defence Research and Development Organisation said in 2013 ( Times of India 2013). Several Agni-V transporter erector launchers (TELs) are clearly visible at various points in time on commercial satellite imagery of DRDO’s integration center north of Hyderabad, as well as at other sites (see Figure 1 of the 2022 India Nuclear Notebook; Kristensen and Korda 2022).

In 2021, India conducted the first test-launches of its two-stage, solid-fuel, Agni-P medium-range ballistic missile with a range between 1,000 and 2,000 kilometers, which the Indian Government refers to as a “new generation” nuclear-capable ballistic missile (Government of India 2021b). The Agni-P is India’s first shorter-range ballistic missile to incorporate more sophisticated rocket motors, propellants, avionics packages, and navigation systems found in India’s newer, longer-range missiles like the Agni-IV and Agni-V. Importantly, the Agni-P is also carried in a sealed canister, similarly to the Agni-V (Korda and Kristensen 2021). One senior DRDO official remarked during the early stages of the Agni-P’s development that, “As our ballistic missiles grew in range, our technology grew in sophistication. Now the early, short-range missiles, which incorporate older technologies, will be replaced by missiles with more advanced technologies. Call it backward integration of technology” (Shukla 2016). Statements like these, coupled with the Agni-P’s clear capability upgrade over the early Agni-I and Agni-II missiles—which utilize older and less robust propellants, airframes, and hydraulic actuators, as well as less accurate guidance systems—suggest that the Agni-P will eventually replace older missiles once it becomes operational (Shukla 2021b). The Agni-P’s second pre-induction night trial was successfully conducted in April 2024 ( The Economic Times 2024b). The missile system will likely undergo a few more tests before being officially inducted by the Strategic Forces Command.

India is also developing a conventional short-range ballistic missile (SRBM) known as the Pralay that is reportedly intended to take over the conventional role currently occupied by the dual-capable Prithvi-II and Agni-I SRBMs (Government of India 2021a; Unnithan 2021). If the nuclear and conventional short-range missions are split between the new Agni-P and Pralay missiles, respectively, that could help reduce the risk of misunderstanding in a conflict caused by mixing nuclear and conventional capabilities on the same platform. This could be further bolstered by the fact that the new Agni-P will likely be operated by Strategic Forces Command while the Pralay will be operated by the Indian Army’s artillery corps (Philip 2021).

For several years it has been rumored that India was developing the ability to deliver multiple independently targetable reentry vehicles (MIRVs) on ballistic missiles. Finally, in March 2024, the Indian government announced that it had conducted the first flight test of its Agni-V ballistic missile “with Multiple Independently Targetable Re-Entry Vehicle (MIRV) technology” under what it called “Mission Divyastra” (Government of India 2024). While there will likely be additional flight tests before the Agni-V’s MIRV capability becomes fully operational, this initial test already marks significant technical progress and represents a notable change in India’s nuclear capabilities (Kristensen and Korda 2024). However, loading multiple warheads on the Agni-V would likely reduce its extended range, which was a key driver behind the initial development of the missile. The Agni-V is estimated to be capable of delivering a payload of 1.5 tons (the same as the Agni-III and -IV), and India’s first- and second-generation warheads—even the modified versions—are thought to be relatively heavy compared with warheads developed by other nuclear-armed states that also deploy MIRVs. As a result, we estimate Agni-V might only carry a small number of warheads, likely no more than three.

The Agni-P was also rumored to have been tested with maneuverable decoys in 2021 to simulate MIRV technology (Korda and Kristensen 2021). Reportedly, the Agni-P can also be equipped with a Maneuverable Reentry Vehicle (MaRV), though there has been no official confirmation of this capability (Desai 2022; Thakur 2024). Equipping a medium-range ballistic missile with MIRV technology would be odd from a strategic and operational standpoint; we therefore assume the 2021 test was intended to further advance India’s development of MIRV technology and decoys, rather than developing the capability to launch MIRVs from this specific system.

Deploying missiles with multiple warheads also invites questions about the credibility of India’s minimum deterrent doctrine. In other countries, MIRV technology was developed to increase the number of targets that can be attacked, overwhelm missile defenses, or both. Deploying MIRVs would reflect a strategy to swiftly strike multiple targets simultaneously and, as a result, signal an intention to quickly increase the size of the nuclear arsenal. In turn, it could potentially incite Pakistan and China to further increase their own arsenals. Unless China develops an effective missile defense system with capability against intermediate-range ballistic missiles, there seems to be little military need for MIRVs on Indian missiles (Kristensen 2013). It seems likely, however, that China’s deployment of MIRVs on some of its ICBMs and Pakistan’s development of the new Ababeel medium-range ballistic missile with MIRVs have increased support in India to also develop a MIRV capability, if for no other reason than to avoid falling behind in technological capability.

A few years ago, Ministry of Defence officials indicated that India’s strategic missile force will be “capped for the present with the Agni-V, with no successor or next series on the horizon or even on the drawing board” (Gupta 2018). However, India is rumored to have begun development of a new ICBM, known as Agni-VI. Official data on this missile is scarce, but an article posted on the government’s Press Information Bureau website in December 2016 claimed the Agni-VI “will have a strike-range of 8,000–10,000 kilometers” and will “be capable of being launched from submarines as well as from land” (Ghosh 2016). The US Air Force’s National Air and Space Intelligence Center estimates its range to be closer to 6,000 kilometers (National Air and Space Intelligence Center 2020). The development of an Agni-VI missile with a range of 8,000–10,000 kilometers—if confirmed—would be particularly controversial because it would extend well beyond potential regional targets in Pakistan and China. In 2023, a scientist who had previously worked at the DRDO reportedly claimed that the Agni-VI’s indigenously designed launcher had already undergone a successful test. However, the claim was revealed during the scientist’s trial on charges of espionage and should be treated with caution (Inamdar and Joshi 2023).

In addition, India is thought to be developing a land-based version of the short-range K-15 submarine launched ballistic missile (SLBM), known as the Shaurya. Due to the high level of uncertainty regarding this system, it is not included in our stockpile estimates.

Sea-based ballistic missiles

For years, India’s only sea-based nuclear capability was the Dhanush ballistic missile, a variant of its short-range Prithvi-II ballistic missile design. These missiles could be launched from the back of two specially configured Sukanya -class patrol vessels (P51 Subhadra and P52 Suvarna) with onboard flame diverters so that launches would not damage the ships. Given their relatively short ranges and liquid-fuel designs—meaning that they would need to be fueled immediately prior to launch—the Dhanush’s utility as a strategic deterrence weapon would be severely limited. The ships carrying these missiles would have to sail dangerously close to the Pakistani or Chinese coasts to target facilities in those countries, making them vulnerable to counterattack. The two Sukanya -class ships are homeported at the Karwar naval base on the Indian west coast.

The status of the Dhanush missile is unknown, but we estimate it is no longer operational. Its last test launch took place in February 2018 and it was last mentioned in official Indian Navy announcements in June 2019. It was also included in the US Air Force’s National Air and Space Intelligence Center report on ballistic and cruise missiles in 2020 (National Air and Space Intelligence Center 2020). Since then, however, both the Subhadra and Suvarna have been pictured making international port visits with their missile stabilizer platforms removed, and satellite imagery indicates that the platforms had not been reinstated as of July 2024 (see Figure 2). As a result, we assess that the Dhanush is no longer operational with the Indian Navy.

Although India’s sea-based deterrent remains largely in its infancy, the country clearly retains an ambition to field a sophisticated naval nuclear deterrent force centered around new nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarines, long-range sea-based ballistic missiles, and a large new naval base.

India’s first indigenous nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarine (SSBN), INS Arihant (previously known under the project designation as S2, and now with the hull number SSBN-80), was commissioned in August 2016 but spent most of 2017 and the first half of 2018 undergoing repairs after its propulsion system was crippled by water damage (Peri and Joseph 2018). In November 2018, Prime Minister Modi announced that INS Arihant had completed its first deterrence patrol, officially marking the completion of India’s nuclear triad. He additionally stated that the deployment constituted “a fitting response to those who indulge in nuclear blackmail” (R. Singh 2018). The “deterrence patrol” lasted approximately 20 days, and the phrasing would imply that nuclear weapons may have been carried onboard during the patrol; however, this cannot be confirmed through open sources. INS Arihant appears to bear a strong resemblance to the Russian-built Kilo -class attack submarines that are operated by the Indian Navy, with the exception that it is nuclear-powered and has a unique missile compartment designed to accommodate up to 12 nuclear-capable K-15 submarine-launched ballistic missiles in four tubes (Sutton 2021).

It is likely that INS Arihant will primarily serve as a training vessel and technology demonstrator (Gady 2018). This claim is further bolstered by the fact that the Arihant has rarely been seen, photographed, or written about in recent years, despite it being a significant technological achievement for India’s Navy (Sutton 2021). The submarine was most recently used as a test launch platform in October 2022, when it launched an unnamed SLBM in a “user training launch” (Ministry of Defence 2022).

A second SSBN, the INS Arighat (designated S3 and previously intended to be named INS Aridhaman), was launched on November 19, 2017 and was expected to be commissioned into the Indian Navy in 2020 (Pubby 2020). However, the Arighat did not begin sea trials until the beginning of 2022 and was just recently commissioned into service on August 29, 2024 ( Janes 2024; Ministry of Defence 2024). Satellite imagery indicates that both the Arihant and the Arighat possess four missile tubes and appear to have identical dimensions.

The Arighat will be followed by two more SSBNs of the same class, temporarily designated S4 and S4* (Bedi 2017), which were scheduled to enter service before 2024, but have also been delayed (Pubby 2020). The first of these, the S4, was launched in November 2021, and is noticeably longer and wider than India’s first two SSBNs (Biggers 2021). Satellite imagery indicates that the S4 is approximately 16 to 18 meters longer than the first two SSBNs and equipped with eight missile tubes—twice the number present on the Arihant and Arighat (see Figure 3).

India is also developing its next generation of SSBNs—the S5 class. A series of tweets by the Indian vice president during his visit to the country’s Naval Science & Technology Laboratory revealed some details about what this new class of submarines might look like (Vice President of India 2019). Photos indicate that the new submarines will be significantly larger than the current Arihant- class and could have 12 or more launch tubes (Sutton 2019). This new class of submarines could begin production after the completion of all four Arihant -class boats in the late 2020s, and a large new shipbuilding hall is currently under construction at Visakhapatnam—possibly to accommodate this new project.

A naval base for the SSBNs, named INS Varsha , is currently under construction near Rambilli on the Indian east coast—only 50 kilometers from the Visakhapatnam shipyard where India builds its submarines. It will be located near a facility under construction that is associated with the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre—India’s primary nuclear research institution, which is also tied to its nuclear weapons program. INS Varsha is undergoing extensive construction with numerous tunnels into a mountain, large piers, and support facilities. Satellite imagery show construction of what appears to be two water entrances into a large underground tunnel complex, possibly for ballistic missile loading of submarines, as well as several land-based entry points (see Figure 4).

To arm its SSBNs, India has developed one nuclear-capable sea-launched ballistic missile and is working on another: the current K-15 (also known as Sagarika or B-05) submarine-launched ballistic missile (SLBM) with a range of 700 kilometers and the future K-4 SLBM with a range of about 3,500 kilometers. The relatively short range of the K-15 would not allow the SSBNs to target Islamabad—only southern Pakistan—and the submarines would not be able to target China at all unless they sailed through the Singapore Strait, deep into the South China Sea. Therefore, despite its induction in the summer of 2018, the K-15 should be seen primarily as an intermediate program intended to develop the technology for more capable future missiles.

The K-4, which reportedly has similar characteristics to the Agni-III intermediate-range ballistic missile, has undergone at least eight test launches, the two most recent of which reportedly took place only six days apart in December 2023 from submersible pontoons (Pandit 2023). The missile appears to be nearly ready for serial production (Pandit 2023). A 2015 launch video of the K-4 SLBM indicated that rather than the cold launch system typically used by most SLBMs—through which the missile gets ejected from the launch tube via a gas generator—the K-4 uses two small motors on the front end of the missile to pull it several meters above the surface of the water before the main engine ignites (DRDO 2015). However, it is possible that this is due to the launch platform that was used for the 2015 test, before India had deployed its first ballistic missile submarine, rather than how the missile would be deployed in an operational context.

Rumors about the K-4 claim that it is highly accurate, reaching “near zero circular error probability,” according to the Defence Research and Development Organisation (Panda 2016), and one official reportedly claimed: “Our Circular Error Probability is much more sophisticated than Chinese missiles” (Peri 2020). Such claims, however, should probably be taken with a grain of salt. With a range of 3,500 kilometers, the K-4 will be able to target all of Pakistan and most of China from the northern Bay of Bengal. Each SSBN launch tube will be capable of carrying either one K-4 or three K-15s. As is usual with Indian nuclear programs in the absence of official statements, rumors and speculation posit that each K-4 SLBM will be capable of carrying more than one warhead, but that seems highly unlikely given the missile’s limited capability.

In addition, senior Indian defense officials have stated that the Defence Research and Development Organisation is reportedly planning to develop a 5,000-kilometer range SLBM that matches the design of the land-based Agni-V and would allow Indian submarines to target all of Asia, parts of Africa, Europe, and the Indo-Pacific region, including the South China Sea. The missile will reportedly be called the K-5 and was initially expected to be tested sometime in 2022 (Gupta 2020), although as of July 2024 no such launch had still taken place.

Cruise missiles

India’s first indigenously-produced cruise missile—the Nirbhay—looks similar to the American Tomahawk or the Pakistani Babur. The Indian Ministry of Defence describes the Nirbhay as “India’s first indigenously designed and developed long-range subsonic cruise missile having 1,000-kilometer range and capable of carrying up to 300-kilogram warheads” (Ministry of Defence 2019, 100). India has reportedly completed development trials of the Nirbhay (Gupta 2023). Although there are many rumors that the Nirbhay is dual-capable, with some sources asserting that the Nirbhay is capable of carrying a 450-kilogram conventional or 12-kiloton nuclear payload (Defense Project 2024; Hindustan Times 2024), neither the Indian government nor the US intelligence community has publicly corroborated these statements. The DRDO confirmed in early 2020 that additional variants of the Nirbhay cruise missile were in the early stages of planning and development (Udoshi 2020). According to a DRDO poster released by the news agency Asian News International in November 2023, a trial of a submarine-launched Nirbhay derivative—with land attack and anti-ship variants—was successfully conducted in February 2023 at a range of 402 kilometers (Menon 2023).

Another Nirbhay derivative under development by DRDO is the supersonic Indigenous Technology Cruise Missile (ITCM). According to Janes , the ITCM is a technology demonstrator program for testing the capability of India’s indigenous small turbofan engines, known as the “Manik,” and other subsystems. A DRDO official reported that a March 2023 flight test of the ITCM successfully demonstrated the capabilities of the new engine, adding that the test paved the way for integration of the engine into another cruise missile under development: the Long-Range Land Attack Cruise Missile (LRLACM) ( Janes 2023a). The LRLACM is intended to replace the Nirbhay and will be operated by all three branches of the Indian military. In 2023, Janes reported that the DRDO designated the LRLACM as nuclear-capable, but this has not been confirmed publicly by Indian officials or US Intelligence sources ( Janes 2023b).

India’s Defence Acquisition Council accorded an Acceptance of Necessity (AoN) to procure the LRLACM in August 2023 ( Janes 2023b). India’s Ministry of Defence reported another successful test flight of a Manik-powered ITCM in April 2024, demonstrating low-altitude flight and the successful performance of enhanced radio frequency seekers and other subsystems (M. Singh 2024).

This research was carried out with grants from the Carnegie Corporation of New York, the Jubitz Foundation, the New-Land Foundation, Ploughshares Fund, the Prospect Hill Foundation, Longview Philanthropy, and individual donors.

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Keywords: Agni , India , Nuclear Notebook , ballistic missiles , nuclear risk , nuclear weapons Topics: Nuclear Notebook , Nuclear Weapons

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Hans M. Kristensen

Hans M. Kristensen is the director of the Nuclear Information Project with the Federation of American Scientists in Washington, DC. His work focuses... Read More

Matt Korda is the associate director of the Nuclear Information Project at the Federation of American Scientists, and an associate researcher with... Read More

Eliana Johns

Eliana Johns, née Reynolds, is a senior research associate for the Nuclear Information Project at the Federation of American Scientists, where she... Read More

Mackenzie Knight

Mackenzie Knight is a senior research associate for the Nuclear Information Project at the Federation of American Scientists where her work focuses... Read More

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Ukraine war latest: UK to send 650 missiles to Ukraine - as Ukraine appoints new diplomat

The UK will send 650 missiles to Ukraine in a £162m commitment to the country's defence. Meanwhile, Ukraine's parliament approved the appointment of new chief diplomat Andrii Sybiha, a former ambassador to Turkey.

Friday 6 September 2024 07:39, UK

• UK to send 650 missiles to Ukraine in latest defence aid
• Ukraine appoints new chief diplomat 
• Putin claims he wants Harris to win US election
• Analysis: Mischief-making from the Russian president
• Your questions answered : Could Zelenskyy's 'buffer zone' aim lead to war's end?
• Live reporting by Bhvishya Patel

Further to reports we brought you yesterday on Volodymyr Zelenskyy appointing a new chief diplomat, here is what we know...

Ukraine's parliament approved the appointment of a new foreign minister as the war against Russia poised for what could be a pivotal phase.

Andrii Sybiha, a former ambassador to Turkey, is the country's new chief diplomat. 

He replaced Dmytro Kuleba, who became one of Ukraine's most recognisable faces on the international stage as he petitioned and pleaded with Western countries to support Ukraine's war effort.

Mr Sybiha has been working as Mr Kuleba's deputy since April.

Mr Zelenskyy wants to replace almost a dozen top officials in his biggest government shake-up since Russia's full-scale invasion.

The war, more than 900 days long, is on the cusp of what could be a key period.

 And a likely hard winter lies ahead, testing the country's resolve.

Ukraine's power grid is under severe strain after Russian missiles and drones knocked out around 70% of the country's generation capacity. 

On the battlefield, Ukraine is waiting to see whether the military’s gamble with its surprise invasion into Russia’s Kursk border region works.

The UK will send 650 missiles to Ukraine in a £162m commitment to the country's defence against Russia, the defence secretary is expected to say during a visit to Germany today.

John Healey will announce Britain's latest commitment to Kyiv's war effort when he meets fellow ministers from across Europe at a defence summit.

The meeting of the Ukraine Defence Contact Group will take place at the US Air Force base in Ramstein, Germany.

Mr Healey will use his first appearance as defence secretary at the latest meeting of the group to reaffirm the new government's commitment to Ukraine.

Speaking ahead of the meeting, the minister said: "This new commitment will give an important boost to Ukraine's air defences and demonstrates our new government's commitment to stepping up support for Ukraine."

He added: "In recent days we have seen the tragic cost of Russia's indiscriminate strikes on Poltava and Lviv. These new UK-made missiles will support Ukraine to defend its people, infrastructure, and territory from Putin's brutal attacks.

"With our international partners today, we will show that we are united for Ukraine. And we will discuss how best we can work together to improve support. Because the security of the UK and Europe starts in Ukraine."

For context : The 650 lightweight multirole missile (LLM) systems is hoped to help boost Ukraine's air defence capabilities as it continues to defend against the Russian invasion and are expected to be delivered by the end of the year.

The UK has delivered hundreds of LLM to Ukraine in the past, and the latest order is expected to be the first part of an effort to step up European defence production in aid of the war effort.

Welcome back to our live coverage of the war in Ukraine.

Yesterday Ukrainian politicians voted to appoint nine new ministers, including the foreign minister, in Volodymyr Zelenskyy's biggest government reshuffle since the start of the war.

The shake-up of Ukraine's government saw foreign minister Dmytro Kuleba resign after more than four years in the post after reportedly coming under pressure from Mr Zelenskyy's chief of staff. He was replaced by experienced diplomat Andrii Sybiha.

It comes at a crucial diplomatic moment as Kyiv continues to call on its allies for more help and the Ukrainian president prepares to visit the US to present his "victory plan" to Joe Biden.

In his nightly address, Mr Zelenskyy said the government needed "new energy" and that this autumn would be important for his country.

Also in the past day: 

• Vladimir Putin claimed Kamala Harris was his preferred choice to win the US election in November, saying her "infectious" laugh was a reason to pick her over Donald Trump;
• One person was killed and three others injured in a Russian shelling attack in the eastern Ukrainian region of Donetsk, prosecutors said;
• NATO secretary-general Jens Stoltenberg said Ukraine had achieved "a lot" in its shock invasion of the Kursk border region in Russia a month ago - after Mr Putin said earlier that the operation had failed;
• Meanwhile, the Kremlin claimed, seemingly without evidence, that instructors from different countries had been taking part in military actions and training Ukrainian forces. 

We're bringing our live coverage of the Ukraine war to an end for this evening.

We'll return with any breaking updates overnight and will resume our rolling coverage soon, but in the meantime, here's a recap of the key events from today:

• Ukrainian foreign minister Dmytro Kuleba, one of the most notable faces for Kyiv during the war, lost his role in a major government reshuffle which saw nine new ministers appointed;
• Vladimir Putin claimed  Kamala Harris was his preferred choice to win the US election in November, saying her "infectious" laugh was a reason to pick her over Donald Trump;
• But our Moscow correspondent Ivor Bennett said his comments are "almost certainly more mischief-making than a statement of fact":
• One person was killed and three others injured in a Russian shelling attack in the eastern Ukrainian region of Donetsk, prosecutors said;
• NATO secretary-general Jens Stoltenberg said Ukraine had achieved "a lot" in its shock invasion of the Kursk border region in Russia a month ago - after Mr Putin said earlier today that the operation had failed ;
• Meanwhile, the Kremlin claimed, seemingly without evidence, that instructors from different countries had been taking part in military actions and training Ukrainian forces . 

It would be "absurd" for the UN-backed International Monetary Fund (IMF) to resume cooperation with Russia, Kyiv has said, following reports the IMF is planning to send its first mission to the country since it invaded Ukraine.

The IMF's Russian representative Aleksei Mozhin told Reuters this week that the mission - the first since 2019 - would go ahead on 16 September.

It will be the first major international financial body to send its official mission to Russia since Moscow sent its troops onto Ukrainian soil.

Ukraine says it is "concerned" at the reports and said it would be "absurd for the main financial institution of the United Nations to legitimise the Russian regime that commits horrific atrocities".

The IMF has been criticised by several Western member states during the war for providing what they say are overly optimistic outlooks about the Russian economy.

Russia's daily casualty rate has increased, with Ukraine's invasion of its Kursk border region partially the cause, the UK defence ministry has said.

In its latest intelligence update, the MoD cited Ukrainian military figures suggesting the average number of Russians killed and wounded increased to 1,187 a day in August.

It added that Russia has "likely suffered over 610,000 casualties" during the war.

"The August 2024 increase in casualty rate is almost certainly due to Ukraine's Kursk operation and continued pressure on the Pokrovsk axis," the MoD said. 

It added that Russian pressure on the frontline would continue, but "their capability constraints will likely continue to reduce their ability to exploit any tactical successes into wider operational gains". 

The MoD also said Russia's casualty rate would likely "continue to average above 1,000 a day throughout September".

It's important to note that Russia and Ukraine separately report battlefield casualty figures which often contradict each other.

Poland has rowed back on its claim that a drone likely entered its airspace during a Russian attack on Ukraine last month.

A Polish army spokesperson said an object that entered the country's airspace early on the morning of 26 August was "most likely a drone" but weather conditions meant it couldn't be identified with complete certainty.

After 10 days of analysis and an extensive search failed to produce any trace of a Russian drone, General Maciej Klisz, head of the Polish army's operational command, said he believed the airspace had not been violated

"As a result of the analytical activities undertaken, I currently state that with a very high probability there was no violation of the airspace of the Republic of Poland on 26 August," he told reporters.

Poland has reported several other airspace violations during Russia's war with Ukraine, and General Klisz warned they could happen again.

The US has charged a Russian TV pundit and his wife over two separate schemes to violate sanctions imposed after Moscow's invasion of Ukraine.

The Department of Justice alleges that Dimitri Simes, 76, and Anastasia Simes, 55, took part in a plot to violate sanctions "for the benefit of sanctioned Russian broadcaster Channel One Russia", and to launder funds obtained through the scheme.

The couple have a home in the US state of Virginia but "remain at large and are believed to be in Russia", the department said.

Both are charged with one count of conspiracy to violate the International Emergency Economic Powers Act, one count of violating the act, and a count of conspiracy to commit international money laundering.

They face up to 20 years in prison if convicted.

Ukraine's parliament has voted to appoint nine new ministers in the biggest government reshuffle since Russia's invasion in 2022.

We reported earlier that Andrii Sybiha was to take over the role of foreign minister from Dmytro Kuleba after he resigned, reportedly following clashes with Volodymyr Zelenskyy's head of office, Andriy Yermak (see 12.40pm).

Mr Kuleba, who was appointed foreign minister in March 2020, had become one of Kyiv's most notable public faces during the conflict.

The shakeup began earlier this week when several other ministers stepped down, while at least five cabinet seats were already vacant after earlier sackings.

The Ukrainian president proposed a slew of replacements which politicians signed off on today.

He said changes to Ukraine's government were necessary to strengthen it and achieve the results his country needed.

The number of people killed in a Russian ballistic missile strike in central Ukraine has risen again as the rescue operation is completed.

Ukraine's state emergency service said 55 people are now known to have died after the missiles struck a military institute and nearby hospital on Wednesday.

Some 328 people were wounded, it said on Telegram.

The attack was one of the deadliest carried out by Russian since the start of the war.

Volodymyr Zelenskyy vowed that "Russian scum" would be held accountable for the strike and ordered an investigation.

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