developing countries tourism development

• Understanding Poverty
• Competitiveness

Tourism and Competitiveness

• Publications

The tourism sector provides opportunities for developing countries to create productive and inclusive jobs, grow innovative firms, finance the conservation of natural and cultural assets, and increase economic empowerment, especially for women, who comprise the majority of the tourism sector’s workforce. Before the COVID-19 pandemic, tourism was the world’s largest service sector—providing one in ten jobs worldwide,  almost seven percent of all international trade and  25 percent of the world’s service exports —a critical foreign exchange generator.  In 2019 the sector was valued at more than US$9 trillion and accounted for 10.4 percent of global GDP.

Tourism offers opportunities for economic diversification and market-creation. When effectively managed, its deep local value chains can expand demand for existing and new products and services that directly and positively impact the poor and rural/isolated communities. The sector can also be a force for biodiversity conservation, heritage protection, and climate-friendly livelihoods, making up a key pillar of the blue/green economy. This potential is also associated with social and environmental risks, which need to be managed and mitigated to maximize the sector’s net-positive benefits.

The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic has been devastating for tourism service providers, with a loss of 20 percent of all tourism jobs (62 million), and US$1.3 trillion in export revenue, leading to a reduction of 50 percent of its  contribution to GDP  in 2020 alone. The collapse of demand has severely impacted the livelihoods of tourism-dependent communities, small businesses and women-run enterprises. It has also reduced government tax revenues and constrained the availability of resources for destination management and site conservation.

Naturalist local guide with group of tourist in Cuyabeno Wildlife Reserve Ecuador. Photo: Ammit Jack/Shutterstock

Tourism and Competitiveness Strategic Pillars

Our solutions are integrated across the following areas:

• Competitive and Productive Tourism Markets. We work with government and private sector stakeholders to foster competitive tourism markets that create productive jobs, improve visitor expenditure and impact, and are supportive of high-growth, innovative firms. To do so we offer guidance on firm and destination level recovery, policy and regulatory reforms, demand diversification, investment promotion and market access. 
• Blue, Green and Resilient Tourism Economies. We support economic diversification to sustain natural capital and tourism assets, prepare for external and climate-related shocks, and be sustainably managed through strong policy, coordination, and governance improvements. To do so we offer support to align the tourism enabling and policy environment towards sustainability, while improving tourism destination and site planning, development, and management. We work with governments to enhance the sector’s resilience and to foster the development of innovative sustainable financing instruments.
• Inclusive Value Chains. We work with client governments and intermediaries to support Small and Medium sized Enterprises (SMEs), and strengthen value chains that provide equitable livelihoods for communities, women, youth, minorities, and local businesses. 

The successful design and implementation of reforms in the tourism space requires the combined effort of diverse line ministries and agencies, and an understanding of the impact of digital technologies in the industry. Accordingly, our teams support cross-cutting issues of tourism governance and coordination, digital innovation and the use and application of data throughout the three focus areas of work.

Tourism and Competitiveness Theory of Change 

Examples of our projects:

• In Indonesia , a US$955m loan is supporting the Government’s Integrated Infrastructure Development for National Tourism Strategic Areas Project. This project is designed to improve the quality of, and access to, tourism-relevant basic infrastructure and services, strengthen local economy linkages to tourism, and attract private investment in selected tourism destinations. In its initial phases, the project has supported detailed market and demand analyses needed to justify significant public investment, mobilized integrated tourism destination masterplans for each new destination and established essential coordination mechanisms at the national level and at all seventeen of the Project’s participating districts and cities.
• In Madagascar , a series of projects totaling US$450m in lending and IFC Technical Assistance have contributed to the sustainable growth of the tourism sector by enhancing access to enabling infrastructure and services in target regions. Activities under the project focused on providing support to SMEs, capacity building to institutions, and promoting investment and enabling environment reforms. They resulted in the creation of more than 10,000 jobs and the registration of more than 30,000 businesses. As a result of COVID-19, the project provided emergency support both to government institutions (i.e., Ministry of Tourism) and other organizations such as the National Tourism Promotion Board to plan, strategize and implement initiatives to address effects of the pandemic and support the sector’s gradual relaunch, as well as to directly support tourism companies and workers groups most affected by the crisis. 
• In Sierra Leone , an Economic Diversification Project has a strong focus on sustainable tourism development.  The project is contributing significantly to the COVID-19 recovery, with its focus on the creation of six new tourism destinations, attracting new private investment, and building the capacity of government ministries to successfully manage and market their tourism assets.  This project aims to contribute to the development of more circular economy tourism business models, and support the growth of women- run tourism businesses.  
• Through the Rebuilding Tourism Competitiveness: Tourism Response, Recovery and Resilience to the COVID-19 Crisis initiative and the Tourism for Development Learning Series , we held webinars, published insights and guidance notes as well as formed new partnerships with Organization of Eastern Caribbean States, United Nations Environment Program, United Nations World Tourism Organization, and World Travel and Tourism Council to exchange knowledge on managing tourism throughout the pandemic, planning for recovery and building back better. The initiative’s key Policy Note has been downloaded more than 20,000 times and has been used to inform recovery initiatives in over 30 countries across 6 regions.
• The Global Aviation Dashboard  is a platform that visualizes real-time changes in global flight movements, allowing users to generate 2D & 3D visualizations, charts, graphs, and tables; and ranking animations for: flight volume, seat volume, and available seat kilometers.  Data is available for domestic, intra-regional, and inter-regional routes across all regions, countries, airports, and airlines on a daily, weekly, or monthly basis from January 2020 until today. The dashboard has been used to track the status and recovery of global travel and inform policy and operational actions.

Traditional Samburu women in Kenya. Photo: hecke61/Shutterstock.

Featured Data

We-Fi WeTour Women in Tourism Enterprise Surveys (2019)

• Sierra Leone  |  Ghana

Featured Reports 

• Destination Management Handbook: A Guide to the Planning and Implementation of Destination Management  (2023)
• Blue Tourism in Islands and Small Tourism-Dependent Coastal States : Tools and Recovery Strategies (2022)
• Resilient Tourism: Competitiveness in the Face of Disasters  (2020)
• Tourism and the Sharing Economy: Policy and Potential of Sustainable Peer-to-Peer Accommodation  (2018)
• Supporting Sustainable Livelihoods through Wildlife Tourism  (2018)
• The Voice of Travelers: Leveraging User-Generated Content for Tourism Development  (2018)
• Women and Tourism: Designing for Inclusion  (2017)
• Twenty Reasons Sustainable Tourism Counts for Development  (2017)
• An introduction to tourism concessioning:14 characteristics of successful programs.  The World Bank, 2016)
• Getting financed: 9 tips for community joint ventures in tourism . World Wildlife Fund (WWF) and World Bank, (2015)
• Global investment promotion best practices: Winning tourism investment” Investment Climate  (2013)

Country-Specific

• COVID-19 and Tourism in South Asia: Opportunities for Sustainable Regional Outcomes  (2020)
• Demand Analysis for Tourism in African Local Communities  (2018)
• Tourism in Africa: Harnessing Tourism for Growth and Improved Livelihoods . Africa Development Forum (2014)

COVID-19 Response

• Expecting the Unexpected : Tools and Policy Considerations to Support the Recovery and Resilience of the Tourism Sector (2022)
• Rebuilding Tourism Competitiveness. Tourism response, recovery and resilience to the COVID-19 crisis  (2020)
• COVID-19 and Tourism in South Asia Opportunities for Sustainable Regional Outcomes  (2020)  
• WBG support for tourism clients and destinations during the COVID-19 crisis  (2020)
• Tourism for Development: Tourism Diagnostic Toolkit  (2019)
• Tourism Theory of Change  (2018)

Country   -Specific

• COVID Impact Mitigation Survey Results  (South Africa) (2020)
• COVID Preparedness for Reopening Survey Results  (South Africa) (2020)
• COVID Study  (Fiji) (2020) with   IFC

Featured Blogs

• Louise Twining-Ward and Alba Suris , Bridging the Tourism Data Divide: New Tools for Policymaking
• Fiona Stewart, Samantha Power & Shaun Mann ,  Harnessing the power of capital markets to conserve and restore global biodiversity through “Natural Asset Companies”   | October 12 th  2021
• Mari Elka Pangestu ,  Tourism in the post-COVID world: Three steps to build better forward  | April 30 th  2021
• Hartwig Schafer ,  Regional collaboration can help South Asian nations rebuild and strengthen tourism industry  | July 23 rd  2020
• Caroline Freund ,  We can’t travel, but we can take measures to preserve jobs in the tourism industry  | March 20 th  2020

Featured Webinars

• Destination Management for Resilient Growth . This webinar looks at emerging destinations at the local level to examine the opportunities, examples, and best tools available. Destination Management Handbook
• Launch of the Future of Pacific Tourism. This webinar goes through the results of the new Future of Pacific Tourism report. It was launched by FCI Regional and Global Managers with Discussants from the Asian Development Bank and Intrepid Group.
• Circular Economy and Tourism . This webinar discusses how new and circular business models are needed to change the way tourism operates and enable businesses and destinations to be sustainable.
• Closing the Gap: Gender in Projects and Analytics .  The purpose of this webinar is to raise awareness on integrating gender considerations into projects and provide guidelines for future project design in various sectoral areas.
• WTO Tourism Resilience: Building forward Better. High-level panelists from Sri Lanka, Costa Rica, Jordan and Kenya discuss how donors, governments and the private sector can work together most effectively to rebuild the tourism industry and improve its resilience for the future.
• Tourism Watch
• Tourism Factsheets
• [email protected]

Launch of Blue Tourism Resource Portal

• Publications
• Key Findings
• Interactive data and economy profiles
• Full report

Travel & Tourism Development Index 2024

The Travel & Tourism Development Index (TTDI) 2024 is the second edition of an index that evolved from the Travel & Tourism Competitiveness Index (TTCI) series, a flagship index of the World Economic Forum that has been in production since 2007. The TTDI is part of the Forum’s broader work with industry and government stakeholders to build a more sustainable, inclusive, and resilient future for economies and local communities.

Created in collaboration with the University of Surrey and with input from leading Travel & Tourism (T&T) stakeholder organizations, thought leaders and data partners, the TTDI measures the set of factors and policies that enable the sustainable and resilient development of T&T.

This edition of the index explores the state of the sector’s recovery from the COVID-19 pandemic amid an increasingly complex operating landscape, while also highlighting the sector’s potential to address global challenges ranging from environmental degradation to the delivery of socioeconomic prosperity.

The TTDI 2024 results are as follows:

The T&T sector’s post-pandemic growth continues, but its recovery has been mixed and operating conditions have been challenging. While 71 of the 119 TTDI-ranked economies increased their scores between the 2019 and 2024 editions, the average index score is just 0.7% above pre-pandemic levels. Pillar performance across a broad range of economies highlights a rebound in global T&T demand that has coincided with rising global air route capacity and connectivity, improved international openness, and increased demand and investment in tourism-generating natural and cultural resources. However, despite this growth, non-leisure demand is still behind that of leisure, labour shortages are ongoing, and air route capacity and connectivity, T&T capital investment, productivity and other sector supply factors have not kept up with demand. The resulting supply and demand imbalance, combined with broad inflationary pressure, has led to reduced price competitiveness and service disruptions.

In general, the Europe and Asia-Pacific regions and high-income economies in particular continue to have the most favourable conditions for T&T development . Out of the top 30 TTDI scorers in 2024, 26 are high-income, 19 are based in Europe, seven are in Asia-Pacific, three are in the Americas and one is in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region. The highest-ranked economies in the 2024 TTDI edition are those of the United States, Spain, Japan, France, Australia, Germany, the United Kingdom, China, Italy and Switzerland. Thanks to typical advantages ranging from favourable business environments and open travel policies to well-developed transport, tourism and ICT infrastructure and natural, cultural and non-leisure attractions, the top 30 TTDI scorers accounted for over 75% of T&T industry GDP in 2022 and 70% of GDP growth between 2020 and 2022.

T&T enabling conditions in developing economies continue to improve, but far more is needed to close the sector-enabling gap . Low to upper-middle-income economies accounted for 52 out of the 71 economies that have improved their TTDI scores since 2019. Saudi Arabia (+5.7%, 50th to 41st) and the United Arab Emirates (+4.4%, 25th to 18th) are the only high-income economies to rank among the top 10 most improved between 2019 and 2024, with the remainder being the developing countries of Uzbekistan (+7.8%, 94th to 78th), Côte d’Ivoire (+6.4%, 116th to 114th), Albania (+5.9%, 78th to 66th), Tanzania (+4.5%, 88th to 81st), Indonesia (+4.5%, 36th to 22nd), Egypt (+4.3%, 66th to 61st), Nigeria (+4.2%, 113th to 112th) and El Salvador (+4.0%, 101st to 97th). Moreover, the major emerging T&T economies of Indonesia, Brazil (+3.3%, 34th to 26th) and Türkiye (+3.1%, 37th to 29th) joined China (+1.0%, 9th to 8th) in the top quartile of the TTDI. Nonetheless, despite above-average growth, non-high-income economies account for nearly 90% of below-average index scorers, indicating a need for further investment to close gaps in enabling conditions if these economies wish to increase their share of the T&T market and improve their readiness for future risks and opportunities.

Additional takeaways are as follows:

Increasing ICT readiness and pandemic-era business and labour policies benefit T&T, but more progress is needed on areas such as workforce resilience and equality . Driven by expanded online access, mobile network coverage and digital payment usage, the 7.2% surge in ICT Readiness pillar scores reflects the further digitalization of T&T services. Meanwhile, economy-wide policies implemented during the pandemic may have made it easier for T&T operators to do business. However, the T&T sector’s growth momentum is under pressure from challenges such as tight labour markets (notably in mature T&T economies), declining credit ratings and growing fiscal constraints, as well as concerns about health and security conditions. Labour market resilience and inclusion are also increasingly important for T&T, yet nearly 70% of non-high-income economies’ T&T labour force is based in countries scoring below average for the TTDI’s new Labour Market Resilience and Equality subpillar, which measures aspects such as equality of job opportunities, workers’ rights and social protection.

T&T resources, particularly natural and cultural assets, offer developing economies an opportunity for tourism-led economic development . The distribution of natural and cultural resources is less correlated with country income level than other T&T enablers, with many developing economies with a strong portfolio of natural and cultural resources able to create thriving tourism sectors. However, effectively harnessing these resources requires comprehensive management, promotion and protection strategies, alongside investment in robust infrastructure and ICT readiness. Therefore, despite their potential, many countries have not been able to effectively leverage their rich heritage for T&T growth, with just the top 20 T&T dimension performers – predominantly in the Americas, Asia-Pacific and Europe – surpassing the index average by approximately 90% in 2023.

Despite progress, balancing growth with sustainability remains a major problem for the T&T sector . Increasing average Environmental Sustainability and T&T Socioeconomic Impact pillar scores between 2019 and 2024 reflect broad progress in areas such as energy sustainability and sector contribution to high-wage employment. However, some of this progress, such as reduced sector emissions during the pandemic, is likely to be temporary, while decreasing scores for T&T Demand Sustainability (since 2021) reflect the resurfacing of historical sustainability challenges such as high seasonality and overcrowding as travel demand continues to recover. Furthermore, the results reveal the nuanced economic and social effects of T&T, with the sector being a major source of relatively high-wage jobs in developing countries, while gender parity in T&T employment is a major issue for regions such as MENA and South Asia.

Leveraging the T&T sector to address global challenges

Aside from improving readiness to handle future external global challenges including economic inequality, environmental threats linked to climate change and pollution, technological innovation and global connectivity, the T&T sector can also play a significant role in addressing them.

To fully realize T&T’s potential in solving some of these global challenges, governments and key stakeholders need to proactively shape the sector to become more resilient, inclusive and sustainable for the future. Potential key focus areas, derived from the TTDI 2024 results as well as other research, are:

Leveraging T&T for environmental sustainability by:

• Providing greater value for nature conservation efforts
• Leading on the energy transition
• Driving responsible consumption

Leveraging T&T for socioeconomic prosperity by:

• Investing in skilled, inclusive and resilient workforces
• Putting local communities at the centre of T&T development
• Strategically managing visitor behaviour and infrastructure development

Leveraging T&T for global connectivity and peace by:

• Increasing travel openness
• Encouraging cultural exchange between visitors and the local community

Leveraging T&T and technology for positive impact by:

• Adopting technology for sustainable and resilient T&T management
• Bridging the digital divide and creating opportunities
• Ensuring responsible and safe use of technology

20 Reasons You Should Integrate Tourism into Your Development Agenda

Louise twining-ward, damien shiels.

Senior Private Sector Specialist

Global Product Specialist

Join the Conversation

• Share on mail
• comments added

Sustainable tourism

Related sdgs, promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable ....

Description

Publications.

Tourism is one of the world's fastest growing industries and an important source of foreign exchange and employment, while being closely linked to the social, economic, and environmental well-being of many countries, especially developing countries. Maritime or ocean-related tourism, as well as coastal tourism, are for example vital sectors of the economy in small island developing States (SIDS) and coastal least developed countries (LDCs) (see also: The Potential of the Blue Economy report as well as the Community of Ocean Action on sustainable blue economy).

The World Tourism Organization defines sustainable tourism as “tourism that takes full account of its current and future economic, social and environmental impacts, addressing the needs of visitors, the industry, the environment and host communities".

Based on General assembly resolution 70/193, 2017 was declared as the  International Year of Sustainable Tourism for Development.

In the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development SDG target 8.9, aims to “by 2030, devise and implement policies to promote sustainable tourism that creates jobs and promotes local culture and products”. The importance of sustainable tourism is also highlighted in SDG target 12.b. which aims to “develop and implement tools to monitor sustainable development impacts for sustainable tourism that creates jobs and promotes local culture and products”.

Tourism is also identified as one of the tools to “by 2030, increase the economic benefits to Small Island developing States and least developed countries” as comprised in SDG target 14.7.

In the Rio+20 outcome document The Future We want, sustainable tourism is defined by paragraph 130 as a significant contributor “to the three dimensions of sustainable development” thanks to its close linkages to other sectors and its ability to create decent jobs and generate trade opportunities. Therefore, Member States recognize “the need to support sustainable tourism activities and relevant capacity-building that promote environmental awareness, conserve and protect the environment, respect wildlife, flora, biodiversity, ecosystems and cultural diversity, and improve the welfare and livelihoods of local communities by supporting their local economies and the human and natural environment as a whole. ” In paragraph 130, Member States also “call for enhanced support for sustainable tourism activities and relevant capacity-building in developing countries in order to contribute to the achievement of sustainable development”.

In paragraph 131, Member States “encourage the promotion of investment in sustainable tourism, including eco-tourism and cultural tourism, which may include creating small- and medium-sized enterprises and facilitating access to finance, including through microcredit initiatives for the poor, indigenous peoples and local communities in areas with high eco-tourism potential”. In this regard, Member States also “underline the importance of establishing, where necessary, appropriate guidelines and regulations in accordance with national priorities and legislation for promoting and supporting sustainable tourism”.

In 2002, the World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg called for the promotion of sustainable tourism development, including non-consumptive and eco-tourism, in Chapter IV, paragraph 43 of the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation.

At the Johannesburg Summit, the launch of the “Sustainable Tourism – Eliminating Poverty (ST-EP) initiative was announced. The initiative was inaugurated by the World Tourism Organization, in collaboration with UNCTAD, in order to develop sustainable tourism as a force for poverty alleviation.

The UN Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD) last reviewed the issue of sustainable tourism in 2001, when it was acting as the Preparatory Committee for the Johannesburg Summit.

The importance of sustainable tourism was also mentioned in Agenda 21.

For more information and documents on this topic,  please visit this link

UNWTO Annual Report 2015

2015 was a landmark year for the global community. In September, the 70th Session of the United Nations General Assembly adopted the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), a universal agenda for planet and people. Among the 17 SDGs and 169 associated targets, tourism is explicitly featured in Goa...

UNWTO Annual Report 2016

In December 2015, the United Nations General Assembly declared 2017 as the International Year of Sustainable Tourism for Development. This is a unique opportunity to devote a year to activities that promote the transformational power of tourism to help us reach a better future. This important cele...

Emerging Issues for Small Island Developing States

The 2012 UNEP Foresight Process on Emerging Global Environmental Issues primarily identified emerging environmental issues and possible solutions on a global scale and perspective. In 2013, UNEP carried out a similar exercise to identify priority emerging environmental issues that are of concern to ...

Transforming our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development

This Agenda is a plan of action for people, planet and prosperity. It also seeks to strengthen universal peace in larger freedom, We recognize that eradicating poverty in all its forms and dimensions, including extreme poverty, is the greatest global challenge and an indispensable requirement for su...

15 Years of the UNWTO World Tourism Network on Child Protection: A Compilation of Good Practices

Although it is widely recognized that tourism is not the cause of child exploitation, it can aggravate the problem when parts of its infrastructure, such as transport networks and accommodation facilities, are exploited by child abusers for nefarious ends. Additionally, many other factors that contr...

Towards Measuring the Economic Value of Wildlife Watching Tourism in Africa

Set against the backdrop of the ongoing poaching crisis driven by a dramatic increase in the illicit trade in wildlife products, this briefing paper intends to support the ongoing efforts of African governments and the broader international community in the fight against poaching. Specifically, this...

Status and Trends of Caribbean Coral Reefs: 1970-2012

Previous Caribbean assessments lumped data together into a single database regardless of geographic location, reef environment, depth, oceanographic conditions, etc. Data from shallow lagoons and back reef environments were combined with data from deep fore-reef environments and atolls. Geographic c...

Natural Resources Forum: Special Issue Tourism

The journal considers papers on all topics relevant to sustainable development. In addition, it dedicates series, issues and special sections to specific themes that are relevant to the current discussions of the United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD)....

Thailand: Supporting Sustainable Development in Thailand: A Geographic Clusters Approach

Market forces and government policies, including the Tenth National Development Plan (2007-2012), are moving Thailand toward a more geographically specialized economy. There is a growing consensus that Thailand’s comparative and competitive advantages lie in amenity services that have high reliance...

Road Map on Building a Green Economy for Sustainable Development in Carriacou and Petite Martinique, Grenada

This publication is the product of an international study led by the Division for Sustainable Development (DSD) of the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UNDESA) in cooperation with the Ministry of Carriacou and Petite Martinique Affairs and the Ministry of Environment, Foreig...

Natural Resources Forum, a United Nations Sustainable Development Journal (NRF)

  Natural Resources Forum, a United Nations Sustainable Development Journal, seeks to address gaps in current knowledge and stimulate relevant policy discussions, leading to the implementation of the sustainable development agenda and the achievement of the Sustainable...

UN Ocean Conference 2025

Our Ocean, Our Future, Our Responsibility “The ocean is fundamental to life on our planet and to our future. The ocean is an important source of the planet’s biodiversity and plays a vital role in the climate system and water cycle. The ocean provides a range of ecosystem services, supplies us with

UN Ocean Conference 2022

The UN Ocean Conference 2022, co-hosted by the Governments of Kenya and Portugal, came at a critical time as the world was strengthening its efforts to mobilize, create and drive solutions to realize the 17 Sustainable Development Goals by 2030.

58th Session of the Commission for Social Development – CSocD58

22nd general assembly of the united nations world tourism organization, world tourism day 2017 official celebration.

This year’s World Tourism Day, held on 27 September, will be focused on Sustainable Tourism – a Tool for Development. Celebrated in line with the 2017 International Year of Sustainable Tourism for Development, the Day will be dedicated to exploring the contribution of tourism to the Sustainable Deve

World Tourism Day 2016 Official Celebration

Accessible Tourism for all is about the creation of environments that can cater for the needs of all of us, whether we are traveling or staying at home. May that be due to a disability, even temporary, families with small children, or the ageing population, at some point in our lives, sooner or late

4th Global Summit on City Tourism

The World Tourism Organisation (UNWTO) and the Regional Council for Tourism of Marrakesh with support of the Government of Morroco are organizing the 4th Global Summit on City Tourism in Marrakesh, Morroco (9-10 December 2015). International experts in city tourism, representatives of city DMOs, of

2nd Euro-Asian Mountain Resorts Conference

The World Tourism Organisation (UNWTO) and Ulsan Metropolitan City with support of the Government of the Republic of Korea are organizing the 2nd Euro-Asian Mountain Resorts Conference, in Ulsan, Republic of Korea (14 - 16 October 2015). Under the title “Paving the Way for a Bright Future for Mounta

21st General Assembly of the United Nations World Tourism Organization

Unwto regional conference enhancing brand africa - fostering tourism development.

Tourism is one of the Africa’s most promising sectors in terms of development, and represents a major opportunity to foster inclusive development, increase the region’s participation in the global economy and generate revenues for investment in other activities, including environmental preservation.

• January 2017 International Year of Tourism In the context of the universal 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), the International Year aims to support a change in policies, business practices and consumer behavior towards a more sustainable tourism sector that can contribute to the SDGs.
• January 2015 Targets 8.9, 12 b,14.7 The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development commits Member States, through Sustainable Development Goal Target 8.9 to “devise and implement policies to promote sustainable tourism that creates jobs and promotes local culture and products”. The importance of sustainable tourism, as a driver for jobs creation and the promotion of local culture and products, is also highlighted in Sustainable Development Goal target 12.b. Tourism is also identified as one of the tools to “increase [by 2030] the economic benefits to Small Island developing States and least developed countries”, through Sustainable Development Goals Target 14.7.
• January 2012 Future We Want (Para 130-131) Sustainable tourism is defined as a significant contributor “to the three dimensions of sustainable development” thanks to its close linkages to other sectors and its ability to create decent jobs and generate trade opportunities. Therefore, Member States recognize “the need to support sustainable tourism activities and relevant capacity-building that promote environmental awareness, conserve and protect the environment, respect wildlife, flora, biodiversity, ecosystems and cultural diversity, and improve the welfare and livelihoods of local communities” as well as to “encourage the promotion of investment in sustainable tourism, including eco-tourism and cultural tourism, which may include creating small and medium sized enterprises and facilitating access to finance, including through microcredit initiatives for the poor, indigenous peoples and local communities in areas with high eco-tourism potential”.
• January 2009 Roadmap for Recovery UNWTO announced in March 2009 the elaboration of a Roadmap for Recovery to be finalized by UNWTO’s General Assembly, based on seven action points. The Roadmap includes a set of 15 recommendations based on three interlocking action areas: resilience, stimulus, green economy aimed at supporting the tourism sector and the global economy.
• January 2008 Global Sustainable Tourism Criteria The Global Sustainable Tourism Criteria represent the minimum requirements any tourism business should observe in order to ensure preservation and respect of the natural and cultural resources and make sure at the same time that tourism potential as tool for poverty alleviation is enforced. The Criteria are 41 and distributed into four different categories: 1) sustainability management, 2) social and economic 3) cultural 4) environmental.
• January 2003 WTO becomes a UN specialized body By Resolution 453 (XV), the Assembly agreed on the transformation of the WTO into a United Nations specialized body. Such transformation was later ratified by the United Nations General Assembly with the adoption of Resolution A/RES/58/232.
• January 2003 1st Int. Conf. on Climate Change and Tourism The conference was organized in order to gather tourism authorities, organizations, businesses and scientists to discuss on the impact that climate change can have on the tourist sector. The event took place from 9 till 11 April 2003 in Djerba, Tunisia.
• January 2002 World Ecotourism Summit Held in May 2002, in Quebec City, Canada, the Summit represented the most important event in the framework of the International Year of Ecosystem. The Summit identified as main themes: ecotourism policy and planning, regulation of ecotourism, product development, marketing and promotion of ecotourism and monitoring costs and benefits of ecotourism.
• January 1985 Tourism Bill of Rights and Tourist Code At the World Tourism Organization Sixth Assembly held in Sofia in 1985, the Tourism Bill of Rights and Tourist Code were adopted, setting out the rights and duties of tourists and host populations and formulating policies and action for implementation by states and the tourist industry.
• January 1982 Acapulco Document Adopted in 1982, the Acapulco Document acknowledges the new dimension and role of tourism as a positive instrument towards the improvement of the quality of life for all peoples, as well as a significant force for peace and international understanding. The Acapulco Document also urges Member States to elaborate their policies, plans and programmes on tourism, in accordance with their national priorities and within the framework of the programme of work of the World Tourism Organization.

Tourism and Hospitality Trends and Sustainable Development: Emerging Issues in the Digital Era

• First Online: 28 August 2024

Cite this chapter

• Emmanuel Ndhlovu   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-2339-3068 4 ,
• Kaitano Dube   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-7482-3945 4 &
• Catherine Muyama Kifworo   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-5581-2258 4  

20 Accesses

This chapter introduces the book Tourism and Hospitality for Sustainable Development—Volume Two: Emerging Trends and Global Issues by summarising the key aspects covered by the chapters that make up the volume. This chapter argues that the emergence of new trends in the tourism industry and the pursuit of sustainable development have been accompanied by the advent of digital technology emerging from the Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR). There have been, however, concerns about the implications of novel technologies for pressing global concerns such as the environment, labour market, energy utilisation, and global poverty. However, studies that comprehensively problematise these aspects either do not exist or are still in their embryonic stages. As a result, our understanding of tourism and hospitality trends and sustainable development in the digitalisation era and the various issues accompanying the digitalisation wave remains limited. In seeking to close this gap, the chapters in this volume explore the trends and emerging issues in the global tourism and hospitality industry in the era of digitalisation. The current introductory chapter revisits some conceptual and practical debates on the usefulness of digitalisation in the industry. This is achieved by referring to various sources from grey and academic literature. This is meant to provide a background discussion of the chapters contained in the book. The chapter also outlines the sections and chapters in the book.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Subscribe and save.

• Get 10 units per month
• Download Article/Chapter or eBook
• 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
• Cancel anytime
• Available as PDF
• Read on any device
• Instant download
• Own it forever
• Available as EPUB and PDF
• Durable hardcover edition
• Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
• Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Abdou, A. H., Hassan, T. H., & El Dief, M. M. (2020). A description of green hotel practices and their role in achieving sustainable development. Sustainability, 12 , 9624. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12229624

Article   Google Scholar  

Abiola-Oke, E. (2020). Destination branding by the brand of hotel. Journal of Tourism and Hospitality Management, 8 (3), 100–107.

Google Scholar  

Abouzeid, N. (2022). The impact of digitalization on Tourism sustainability: Comparative study between selected developed and developing countries. In Second International Conference on Advanced Research on Management, Economics, and Accounting , 18–20 February 2022,

Ada, N., Kazancoglu, Y., Sezer, M. D., Ede-Senturk, C., Ozer, I., & Ram, M. (2021). Analyzing barriers of circular food supply chains and proposing industry 4.0 solutions. Sustainability, 13 , 6812. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13126812

Aithal, P. S. (2021). Ideal technology and its realization. In P. S. In Aithal (Ed.), Ideal systems, ideal technology, and their realization opportunities using ICCT & Nanotechnology (pp. 83–216). Srinivas Publication.

Alalwan, A. A. (2020). Mobile food ordering apps: An empirical study of the factors affecting customer e-satisfaction and continued intention to reuse. International Journal of Information Management, 50 , 28–44.

Anggadwita, G., Luturlean, B. S., Ramadani, V., & Ratten, V. (2017). Socio-cultural environments and emerging economy entrepreneurship: Women entrepreneurs in Indonesia. Journal of Entrepreneurship in Emerging Economies, 9 (1), 85–96.

Antwi, C. O., Chong-jun, F., Ihnatushchenko, N., Aboagye, M. O., & Xu, H. (2020). Does the nature of airport terminal service activities matter? Processing and nonprocessing service quality, passenger affective image and satisfaction. Journal of Air Transport Management, 89 . https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jairtraman.2020.101869

Arun, T. M., Kaur, P., Ferraris, A., & Dhir, A. (2021). What motivates the adoption of green restaurant products and services? A systematic review and future research agenda. Business Strategy and Environment , 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1002/bse.2755

Barykin, E. S., de la Poza, E., Khalid, B., Kapustina, I. V., Kalinina, O. V., & Iqbal, K. M. J. (2021). Tourism industry: Digital transformation. In Handbook of research on future opportunities for technology management education . IGI Publisher.

Bayram, A. (2021). Renting cars and trucks. https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-7998-7287-0.ch005

Brundtland, G. H. (1987). Our common future: Report of the world commission on environment and development . UN-Dokument A/42/427.

Brusiltseva, H., & Akhmedova, O. (2019). Transport service as a component of the tourism industry development of Ukraine. SHS Web of Conferences, 67 (02001), 1–6.

Budnyk, V., & Lernichenko, K. (2019). Urban passenger water transport: Operating within public-private partnership (international research and case study). Economic Annals-XXI, 178 (7–8), 84–95. https://doi.org/10.21003/ea.V178-07

Carnicelli, S., Drummond, S., & Anderson, H. (2020). Making the connection using action research: Serious leisure and the Caledonian Railway. Journal of Heritage Tourism, 16 , 615–631.

Chakamera, C., & Pisa, N. (2021). Relationship between air passenger transport, Tourism and real gross domestic product in Africa: A longitudinal mediation analysis. African Journal of Hospitality, Tourism and Leisure, 10 (4), 1200–1214.

Chowdhury, S., Åkesson, M., & Thomsen, M. (2021). Service innovation in digitalized product platforms: An illustration of the implications of generativity on remote diagnostics of public transport buses. Technology in Society, 65 , 101589. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techsoc.2021.101589

Christou, P., Similidou, A., & Stylianou, M. C. (2020). Tourists’ perceptions regarding the use of anthropomorphic robots in tourism and hospitality. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 32 (11), 3665–3683.

De Gasperi, A. (2021). Sustainable tourism development. Regional Formation and Development Studies, 3 (8), 157–166.

de la Feria, R., & Maffini, G. (2021). The impact of digitalisation on personal income taxes. British Tax Review, 2021 (2), 154–168.

Dragan, W., & Gierczak, D. (2020). Former border railway stations in central and Eastern Europe: Revitalization of a problematic cultural heritage in Poland. Journal of Tourism and Cultural Change, 19 , 851–867.

Dube, K., & Mearns, K. (2019). Tourism and recreational potential of green building a case study of Hotel Verde Cape Town. In G. Nhamo & V. Mjimba (Eds.), The green building evolution (pp. 200–219). African Institute of South Africa.

Dube, K. (2022). South African hotels and hospitality industry response to climate change- induced water insecurity under the sustainable development goals banner. In Naddeo, V., Choo, K., & M. Ksibi (Eds.), Water-Energy-Nexus in the Ecological Transition. Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation . p. 249–252. Springer Nature.

Durajczyk, P., & Drop, N. (2021). Possibilities of using inland navigation to improve efficiency of urban and interurban freight transport with the use of the river information services (RIS) system—Case study. Energies, 14 , 7086.

Eskerod, P., Hollensen, S., Morales-Contreras, M. F., & Arteaga-Ortiz, J. (2019). Drivers for pursuing sustainability through IoT technology within high-end hotels-an exploratory study. Sustainability (Switzerland). https://doi.org/10.3390/su11195372

Ferreira, J. J., Ratten, V., & Dana, L. P. (2017). Knowledge spillover-based strategic entrepreneurship. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 13 (1), 161–167.

Filho, W. L., Ng, A. W., Sharif, A., Janová, J., Özuyar, P. G., Hemani, C., Heyes, G., Njau, D., & Rampasso, I. (2022). Global tourism, climate change and energy sustainability: Assessing carbon reduction mitigating measures from the aviation industry. Sustainability Science . https://doi.org/10.1007/s11625-022-01207-x

Filimonau, V., & Naumova, E. (2020). The blockchain technology and the scope of its application in hospitality operations. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 87 , 1–8.

Friedrich, J., Stahl, J., Hoogendoorn, G., & Fitchett, J. M. (2020). Exploring climate change threats to beach tourism destinations: Application of the Hazard–Activity Pairs methodology to South Africa. American Meteorological Society, 12 , 529–544. https://doi.org/10.1175/WCAS-D-19-0133.1

Gierczak-Korzeniowska, B. (2020). Tourist and business models in the mobility of customers using car rental services. Geography and Tourism, 8 (2), 29–39.

Guan, H., Liu, H., & Saadé, R. G. (2022). Analysis of carbon emission reduction in international civil aviation through the lens of shared triple bottom line value creation. Sustainability, 14 , 8513.

Kayumovich, K. O. (2020). Prospects of digital tourism development. Economics, 1 (44).

Kindzule-Millere, I., & Zeverte-Rivza, S. (2022). Digital transformation in tourism: Opportunities and challenges. In Proceedings of the 2022 International Conference “ECONOMIC SCIENCE FOR RURAL DEVELOPMENT” No 56 Jelgava, LLU ESAF, 11–13 May 2022, pp. 476–486. https://doi.org/10.22616/ESRD.2022.56.047478

Koçak, E., Ulucak, R., & Ulucak, Z. S. (2020). The impact of tourism developments on CO2 emissions: An advanced panel data estimation. Tourism Management Perspectives, 33 , 100611. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tmp.2019.100611

La, J., Bil, C., & Heiets, I. (2021). Impact of digital technologies on airline operations. Transportation Research Procedia, 56 , 63–70.

Liutikas, D. (2023). Post-COVID-19 tourism: Transformations of travelling experience. In K. Dube, G. Nhamo, & M. P. Swart (Eds.), COVID-19, Tourist destinations and prospects for recovery Volume one: A global perspective (pp. 277–301). Springer Nature.

Chapter   Google Scholar  

Molchanova, K. (2020). A review of digital technologies in aviation industry. Logistics and Transport, 47–48 , 69–77.

Moon, H. G., Lho, H. L., & Han, H. (2021). Self-check-in kiosk quality and airline non-contact service maximization: How to win air traveller satisfaction and loyalty in the post-pandemic world? Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 38 , 383–398.

Mudasir, N., Ghausee, S., & Stanikzai, H. U. R. (2020). A review of ecotourism and its economic, environmental and social impact. Journal of Emerging Technologies and Innovative Research, 7 (8), 1739–1743.

Narayan, R., Gehlot, A., Singh, R., Akram, S. V., Priyadarshi, N., & Twala, B. (2022). Hospitality feedback system 4.0: Digitalization of feedback system with integration of industry 4.0 enabling technologies. Sustainability, 14 , 12158.

Ndhlovu, E., & Dube, K. (2023). Challenges of radical technological transition in the restaurant industry within developing countries. African Journal of Hospitality, Tourism and Leisure, 12 (1), 156–170.

Niedzielski, P., Durajczyk, P., & Drop, N. (2021). Utilizing the RIS system to improve the efficiency of inland waterway transport companies. Procedia Computer Science, 192 , 4853–4864.

Oke, A. E., Aigbavboa, C. O., & Raphiri, M. M. (2017). Students’ satisfaction with hostel accommodations in higher education institutions. Journal of Engineering, Design and Technology, 15 (5), 652–666.

Ouariti, O. Z., & Jebrane, E. M. (2020). The impact of transport infrastructure on tourism destination attractiveness: A case study of Marrakesh City, Morocco. African Journal of Hospitality, Tourism and Leisure, 9 (2), 1–18.

Papatheodorou, A. (2021). A review of research into air transport and tourism: Launching the annals of tourism research curated collection on air transport and tourism. Annals of Tourism Research, 87, 103151, 1–17.

Park, E. (2019). The role of satisfaction on customer reuse to airline services: An application of Big Data approaches. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, 47 , 370–374.

Peeters, P., Gössling, S., Klijs, J., Milano, C., Novelli, M., Dijkmans, C., et al. (2018). Research for TRAN committee - Overtourism: Impact and possible policy responses . European Parliament, Policy Department for Structural and Cohesion Policies.

Peira, G., Guidice, A. L., & Miraglia, S. (2022). Railway and tourism: A systematic literature review. Tourism and Hospitality, 3 (1), 69–79. https://doi.org/10.3390/tourhosp3010005

Pellegrino, F. (2021). Transport and tourism relationship. In F. Grasso & B. S. Sergi (Eds.), Tourism in the Mediterranean Sea (pp. 241–256). Emerald Publishing Limited.

Pereira-Doel, P., Font, X., Wyles, K., & Pereira-Moliner, J. (2019). Showering smartly. A field experiment using water-saving technology to foster pro- environmental behaviour among hotel guests. E-Review of Tourism Research, 17 (3), 407–425.

Priatmoko, S., & Dávid, L. D. (2021). Winning tourism digitalization opportunity in the Indonesia CBT business. Geojournal of Tourism and Geosites, 37 (3), 800–806.

Prideaux, B. (2023). River and canal waterways as a Tourism resource. In J. S. Chen (Ed.), Advances in hospitality and leisure (Advances in hospitality and leisure) (Vol. 18, pp. 137–153). Emerald Publishing Limited. https://doi.org/10.1108/S1745-354220220000018008

Punter, L., & Hofman, W. (2022). Digital Inland Waterway Area: Towards a Digital Inland Waterway Area. https://transport.ec.europa.eu/system/files/2017-12/2017-10-dina.pdf . Accessed 11/07/2023.

Radicic, D., & Petkovi’c, S. (2023). Impact of digitalization on technological innovations in small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs). Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 191 , 122474. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2023.122474

Ramachandran, V., & Ruthramathi, V. (2020). Emerging issues and challenges of technology in tourism and hospitality industry. Studies in Indian Place Names, 40 (71), 30–33.

Ratten, V., Tajeddini, K., & Merkle, T. (2020). Tourism hospitality and digital transformation: The relevance for society. In K. Tajeddini, V. Ratten, & T. Merkel (Eds.), Tourism, hospitality and digital transformation, innovation and technology Horizons (pp. 1–5). Routledge, USA/Taylor & Francis Group.

Shabrina, Z., Buyuklieva, B., & Ng, M. K. M. (2020). Short-term rental platform in the urban tourism context: Geographically weighted regression. Geographical Analysis, 53 (4), 686–707.

Shirgaokar, M. (2018). Expanding seniors’ mobility through phone apps: Potential responses from the private and public sectors. Journal of Planning Education and Research . https://doi.org/10.1177/0739456X18769133

Shiwakoti, N., Hu, Q., Pang, M. K., Cheung, T. M., Xu, Z., & Jiang, H. (2022). Passengers’ perceptions and satisfaction with digital technology adopted by Airlines during COVID-19 pandemic. Future Transportation, 2 , 988–1009.

Specht, P., Balmer, J., Jovic, M., & Meyer-Larsen, N. (2022). Digital information services needed for a sustainable inland waterway transportation business. Sustainability, 14 (11), 6392.

Sun, X., Wandelt, S., & Zhang, A. (2021). Technological and educational challenges towards pandemic-resilient aviation. Transport Policy, 114 , 104–115.

Tajeddini, K., Ratten, V., & Merkle, T. (2019). Tourism hospitality and digital transformation: The relevance for society. In K. Tajeddini, V. Ratten, & T. Merkle (Eds.), Tourism, hospitality and digital Transformation: Strategic management aspects. Innovation and technology horizons . Routledge.

Tanko, M., Cheemarkurthy, H., Kihl, S. H., & Garme, K. (2019). Water transit passenger perceptions and planning factors: A Swedish perspective. Travel Behaviour and Society, 16 , 23–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tbs.2019.02.002

Tayo, S. S., & Omotosho, A. A. (2021). Assessment of availability, accessibility and adequacy of hostel facilities in Nigerian universities. International Journal of Humanities Social Sciences and Education, 8 (7), 17–25.

Thi Phan, L., Sue-Ching, J., & Lin, J.-C. (2021). Untangling adaptive capacity in tourism: A narrative and systematic review. Environmental Research Letters, 16 , 123001. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/ac32fa

Tijan, E., Agatić, A., Jović, M., & Aksentijević, S. (2019). Maritime National Single Window—A prerequisite for sustainable seaport business. Sustainability, 11 , 4570.

Verberght, E., Rashed, Y., van Hassel, E., & Vanelslander, T. (2022). Modeling the impact of the River Information Services Directive on the performance of inland navigation in the ARA Rhine Region. EJTIR, 2 , 53–82.

Walton, J. K. (2020). Tourism | definition, history, types, importance, & industry | Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/tourism

Wang, M., & Mu, L. (2018). Spatial disparities of Uber accessibility: An exploratory analysis in Atlanta, USA. Computers Environment and Urban Systems, 67 , 169–175.

Wang, X., Lai, I. K. W., Zhou, Q., & Pang, Y. H. (2021). Regional travel as an alternative form of Tourism during the COVID-19 pandemic: Impacts of a low-risk perception and perceived benefits. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18 , 9422. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18179422

WTTC-UNEP-UNFCCC. (2021). A net zero roadmap for travel and tourism: Proposing a new target framework for the travel and tourism sector. https://wttc.org/Portals/0/Documents/Reports/2021/WTTC_Net_Zero_Roadmap-Annex.pdf

Yiamjanya, S. (2020). Industrial heritage along railway corridor: A gear towards tourism development, a case study of Lampang Province, Thailand. E3S Web Conference, 164 , 03002.

Yiu, C. Y., & Cheung, K. S. (2021). Urban zoning for sustainable Tourism: A continuum of accommodation to Enhance City resilience. Sustainability, 13 , 7317.

Youssef, A. B., & Zeqiri, A. (2021). Hospitality industry 4.0 and climate change. Circular Economy and Sustainability . https://doi.org/10.1007/s43615-021-00141-x

Zeqiri, A., Dahmani, M., & Youssef, A. B. (2020). Digitalization of the tourism industry: What are the impacts of the new wave of technologies. Balkan Economic Review, 2 , 63–82.

Zhang, J., & Shang, Y. (2022). The influence and mechanism of digital economy on the development of the Tourism service trade—Analysis of the mediating effect of carbon emissions under the background of COP26. Sustainability, 14 , 13414. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14201341

Zlatanova, Z. (2020). Internet marketing and changes in the management and distribution of tourism companies . Publishing Complex Avangard Prima.

Download references

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Vaal University of Technology, Vanderbijlpark, South Africa

Emmanuel Ndhlovu, Kaitano Dube & Catherine Muyama Kifworo

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and affiliations.

Emmanuel Ndhlovu

Kaitano Dube

Catherine Muyama Kifworo

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2024 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Ndhlovu, E., Dube, K., Kifworo, C.M. (2024). Tourism and Hospitality Trends and Sustainable Development: Emerging Issues in the Digital Era. In: Ndhlovu, E., Dube, K., Kifworo, C.M. (eds) Tourism and Hospitality for Sustainable Development. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-63073-6_1

Download citation

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-63073-6_1

Published : 28 August 2024

Publisher Name : Springer, Cham

Print ISBN : 978-3-031-63072-9

Online ISBN : 978-3-031-63073-6

eBook Packages : Business and Management Business and Management (R0)

Share this chapter

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Publish with us

Policies and ethics

• Find a journal
• Track your research

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

• View all journals
• My Account Login
• Explore content
• About the journal
• Publish with us
• Sign up for alerts
• Open access
• Published: 02 September 2024

A qualitative dynamic analysis of the relationship between tourism and human development

• Pablo Juan Cárdenas-García   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-1779-392X 1 ,
• Juan Gabriel Brida   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-2319-5790 2 &
• Verónica Segarra   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-0436-3303 2  

Humanities and Social Sciences Communications volume  11 , Article number:  1125 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

Metrics details

• Development studies

This study analyzes the dynamic relationship between tourism and human development in a sample of 123 countries between 1995–2019 using a symbolic time series methodological analysis, with the number of international tourist arrivals per capita as the tourism measurement variable and the Human Development Index as the development measurement variable. The objective was to determine if a higher level of tourism specialization is related to a higher level of economic development. The definition of economic regime is used and the concept of the distance between the dynamic trajectories of the different countries analyzed is introduced to create a minimum spanning tree. In this way, groups of countries are identified that display similar behavior in terms of tourism specialization and levels of human development. The results suggest that countries with a high level of tourism specialization have a higher level of development as compared to those in which tourism has a lower specific weight. However, the largest group of countries identified is characterized by low levels of tourism specialization and economic development, which appears to translate into a poverty trap. Therefore, policies related to tourism activity expansion should be created since higher tourism levels have been linked to higher levels of human development. In the case of less developed countries, however, these projects should be financed by international organizations so that these countries can escape the poverty trap in which they are currently found.

Similar content being viewed by others

Modeling the link between tourism and economic development: evidence from homogeneous panels of countries

The coordination pattern of tourism efficiency and development level in Guangdong Province under high-quality development

Analysis of spatial-temporal pattern, dynamic evolution and influencing factors of health tourism development in China

Introduction.

Traditionally, the Gross Domestic Product per capita (GDP per capita) is considered the go-to variable to determine a population’s economic development and is restricted exclusively to an economic measure (Todaro and Smith, 2020 ). Recently, however, studies on development have begun incorporating other noneconomic factors, such as education and health. These factors, together with the economic criteria, provide a baseline for measuring a population’s development in broader terms (World Bank, 1991 ; Lee, 2017 ). In the search for economic activities that enable economic growth and improve the level of economic development, many countries have been especially interested in tourist activity since it is an economic activity that has a strong potential for job creation, the generation of foreign currency, and revenue increase. In short, it may be able to boost economic growth in host regions (Brida et al., 2020 ). In some cases, the development of tourism has been found to contribute to reducing inequality (Chi, 2020 ; Nguyen et al. ( 2021 )) or reducing poverty (Garza-Rodriguez ( 2019 ); Folarin, Adeniyi ( 2019 )).

In fact, what is actually important in economic policies is not only the promotion of a country’s economic growth but also, the channeling of this economic growth into improved economic development in the territory (Croes, 2012 ). This latter concept is much broader and it serves to satisfy the needs and demands of the resident population, improving its quality of life (Ranis et al., 2000 ).

In terms of the analysis of the relationship between tourism and economic growth, many studies have researched this connection. Most of them agree that a causal relationship exists between both variables, that tourism influences growth (Balaguer and Cantavella-Jordá, 2002 ; Brida et al., 2016 ), that the economic cycle influences the development of tourism (Antonakakis et al., ( 2015 ); Sokhanvar et al., 2018 ), and that there is a bidirectional relationship between tourism and economic growth (Bojanic and Lo, 2016 ; Hussain-Shahzad et al. ( 2017 )).

Given that a relationship between tourism and economic growth has been proven in the economies of host countries and national governments, despite a lack of sufficient empirical evidence, various international organizations have been promoting tourism activity as a tool to facilitate the population’s development in those host regions that attract tourist flows to their territory (OECD, 2010 ; UNCTAD - United Nations Conference on Trade and Development ( 2011 )). Such has been the case with the relationship between tourism and economic growth, with the suggestion that tourism is a tool for economic development (Cárdenas-García and Pulido-Fernández, 2019 ).

Many studies have already analyzed the relationship between tourism and GDP per capita, finding long-term equilibrium relationships between the expansion of tourism and economic growth, whereby a higher level of tourists received means higher levels of economic growth (Akadiri et al., 2017 ). As previously mentioned, the economic development of a population, in a broad sense, and in addition to the economic variables, has to be linked to additional variables with a multidimensional content (Wahyuningsih et al., 2020 ). In this scenario, although some studies have measured development in a broader sense (Andergassen and Candela, 2013 ; Banerjee et al. 2018 ; Bojanic and Lo, 2016 ; Li et al., 2018 ), there is a clear lack of analysis of the relationship between tourism and economic development as a multidimensional variable.

In this regard, human development, and its measurement through the Human Development Index (HDI), is a multidimensional variable related to the living conditions of the resident population (income, education, and health), which has been used on many occasions (more than level of poverty or income inequality) to measure a country’s level of development (Cárdenas-García et al., 2015 ; Chattopadhyay et al., 2021 ; Croes et al., 2021 ). The link between tourism and human development arises from the economic growth generated by the expansion of tourist activity. This economic growth is used to develop policies that will improve the education and health levels of the host population (Alcalá-Ordóñez and Segarra, 2023 ).

This article analyzes the relationship between tourism and economic growth, measuring the economic growth of the countries in the broadest possible sense, with a link to the concept of human development (Cárdenas-García et al., 2015 ). As a novelty, a wide set of countries is used for this analysis. This overcomes the limitations of prior works that analyzed the relationship between tourism and human development using small country samples (Chattopadhyay et al., 2021 ).

Although distinct works have already analyzed the relationship between tourism and economic development, they tended to focus on the application of econometric tests to determine the type of causal relationship existing between these variables (Alcalá-Ordóñez and Segarra, 2023 ). This work takes a distinct approach, analyzing the qualitative dynamic behavior arising between tourism and human development. Different country groups are identified that have similar behavior within the group and, simultaneously, with differences as compared to the other groups. Thus it is possible to verify the relationship existing between tourism and human development in each of these country groups, to determine if a higher level of tourism specialization is linked to a higher level of human development.

This approach does not attempt to determine if a causal relationship exists by which tourism precedes the level of development. Rather, this approach of grouping countries aims to determine if, at similar levels of development, the country groups with a higher level of tourism specialization display higher levels of human development. This would suggest that tourism activity is an economic activity that promotes human development to a greater extent than other economic activities.

In this context, this study analyzes the dynamic relationship between tourism and economic development, considering development as a multidimensional variable. It uses a data panel consisting of 123 countries for the period between 1995–2019 and considers the diversity of countries in terms of tourism development and their economic development dynamics. To perform this dynamic analysis, the concept of economic regime is introduced (Brida, 2008 ; Cristelli et al., 2015 , Brida et al., 2020 ), and symbolic time series are used (Risso ( 2018 )).

This article contributes to the empirical literature examining the relationship between tourism and economic development. It analyzes the qualitative dynamic behavior of the countries without considering any particular model. Therefore, this analysis enables the identification of groups of countries with similar dynamics, for which economic models of the same type can be identified. The results of this study indicate that there are different groups of countries displaying similar dynamic behavior in terms of both tourism and development. These groups are characterized by their level of tourism specialization and economic development. Therefore, it is interesting to note the heterogeneity existing in the relationship between tourism and development, as well as the consequences that this situation has for both the empirical analysis and the political implications.

The rest of the document is organized as follows: the following section reviews the literature on the subject under study, section “Data” presents the data used, section “Methodology” details the methodology applied, section “Results” presents the results obtained, section “Discussion” includes a discussion of the paper, and, finally, section “Conclusions and policy implications” outlines the final conclusions and policy implications of the work.

Literature review

Economic growth versus economic development.

Traditionally, studies on development have focused on economic growth and have been based on the premise that the efficient allocation of resources maximizes growth and that the expansion of growth and consumption is a measure of population welfare (Easterly, 2002 ). However, the emergence of new studies at the end of the last century, beginning with the works by Sen ( 1990 , 1999 ), resulted in a change of focus for studies on development. They moved from an exclusive view of development linked to economic growth to the inclusion of new factors that connect it to the population’s living conditions (Croes et al., 2018 ).

Economic growth and development are distinct concepts that do not need to be linked. In other words, increased economic growth does not necessarily imply improved economic development (Croes et al., 2021 ). However, it is also true that economic growth, and the revenue generated, can be used to improve a population’s living conditions through better health care, infrastructures, and education (Banerjee et al., 2018 ; Cárdenas-García and Pulido-Fernández, 2019 ).

In this regard, the first studies to analyze the relationship between tourist activity and the economies of host countries focused exclusively on the relationship between tourism and economic growth, using a traditional view of development that is linked to economic variables.

Tourism and economic growth

Numerous studies have analyzed the relationship between tourism and economic growth. Therefore, it is a highly relevant research area in the economic analysis of tourist activity, with three streams of perfectly defined results in which these works may be grouped (Alcalá-Ordóñez et al., 2023; Brida et al., 2016 ).

Firstly, different studies have determined that tourism development drives economic growth, identified under the tourism-led economic growth hypothesis. Both the first study to analyze this causal relationship (Balaguer and Cantavella-Jorda, 2002), as well as the later studies (Brida et al., 2016 ; Castro-Nuño et al., 2013 ; Lin et al., 2019 , Pérez-Rodríguez et al., 2021 ; Ridderstaat et al., 2016 ), have confirmed the existence of this relationship.

Secondly, other studies determined that the evolution of the economic cycle has an influence on the development of tourism, identified under the economic-driven tourism growth. These studies indicate that those economies with a greater level of investment, stability in the price level, or lower level of unemployment determine the development of tourism (Antonakakis et al. ( 2015 ); Rivera, 2017 ; Sokhanvar et al., 2018 ; Tang, Tan ( 2018 )).

Finally, a third wave of studies determined that the relationship between the development of tourism and economic growth has a bidirectional character. These studies note that the relationship between both variables is a causal bidirectional relationship (Antonakakis et al., 2019 ; Bojanic and Lo, 2016 ; Chingarande and Saayman, 2018 ; Hussain-Shahzad et al. ( 2017 ); Ridderstaat et al., 2013 ).

Human Development as a measure of development

Since the end of the last century, the scientific literature has shown that the concept of development cannot be linked exclusively to variables of economic content. Instead, development should be considered along with other non-economic factors that are related to the population’s living conditions. Therefore, it is a multidimensional concept (Alcalá-Ordóñez and Segarra, 2023 ).

When measuring development using a multidimensional perspective, this concept is often linked to human development (Cárdenas et al., 2015 ; Chattopadhyay et al., 2021 ). In this regard, the HDI is a multidimensional indicator that, in addition to considering variables of economic content, in this case per capita income, also incorporates other non-economic factors, specifically, life expectancy and educational level of the population (United Nations Development Program, 2022 ).

The HDI offers some major advantages as a measure of development over other indicators, providing a more complete vision of society’s progress and focusing not only on economic factors but also on factors related to the population’s living conditions. This makes it possible to identify inequalities that need to be addressed to promote more equitable and sustainable development (Sharma et al., 2020 ; Tan et al., 2019 ). Moreover, since it was created by the United Nations Development Program for a large group of countries, it permits homogenous comparison-making between a broad base of countries at a global level (Cárdenas-García and Pulido-Fernández, 2019 ).

Tourism and human development

The expansion of tourism activity can influence the level of human development (Croes et al., 2021 ). The common link between these two variables is the economic impact generated by the expansion of tourist activity since this is a linked process, whereby a higher level of tourists results in an increase in income generated and thus, a higher level of economic growth (Brida et al., 2016 ). Countries can take advantage of this higher level of economic growth to develop specific policies aimed at improving the living conditions of the host population, thereby improving human development (Eluwole et al., 2022 ).

This link between tourism and human development has also been highlighted by the United Nations Tourism in its Millennium Development Goals of 2000, which declared that factors such as health and education are very important in economic development. It was suggested that tourism may improve human development given that it has an influence on these non-economic factors (UN Tourism, 2006 ).

The triple component of the HDI, the most frequently used indicator to measure economic development, has been considered in most of the studies analyzing the relationship between tourism and economic development (Alcalá-Ordóñez and Segarra, 2023 ).

Distinct studies have attempted to determine whether tourism is a tool for economic growth in host countries, although most of the studies have exclusively used economic content to measure the concept of development (Wahyuningsih et al., 2020 ). Therefore, there is a major lack of empirical studies that consider whether tourism influences development and that do so while considering development to be a multidimensional variable encompassing other factors (beyond those associated with the economy).

Some of these studies have outlined that the expansion of tourism has led to an increase in the level of development for host countries. This suggests that tourism has a positive unidirectional relationship with the living conditions of the population (Meyer and Meyer, 2016 ). Fahimi et al. ( 2018 ), examining microstates, found evidence supporting the idea that the expansion of tourism leads to an improvement in human capital. Other studies have also noted that this causal relationship between tourism and development exists, but only in developed countries (Banerjee et al., 2018 ; Bojanic and Lo, 2016 ). Some studies have suggested that only the least developed countries have benefited from the tourism industry in terms of increased economic development ratios (Cárdenas-García et al., 2015 ).

However, although it has been indicated that tourism influences economic growth, some authors have noted that tourism does not have an influence on the development of host countries (Rivera, 2017 ), or simply, that the expansion of this activity does not have any effect on human development (Croes et al., 2021 ).

As an intermediate position between these two schools of thought, some works have suggested that tourism has a positive influence on the development of the resident population, but this causal relationship is only found when certain factors exist in the host countries, such as infrastructure, environment, technology, and human capital (Andergassen and Candela, 2013 ; Cárdenas-García and Pulido-Fernández, 2019 ; Li et al., 2018 ).

Along these same lines, in a study using panel data from 133 countries, Chattopadhyay et al. ( 2021 ) determined that, although no global relationship exists between tourism and human development for all countries, the specific characteristics of each country (level of growth, degree of urbanization, or commercial openness) are determinants for tourism to improve human development levels.

Finally, other studies in the scientific literature have looked to determine whether the relationship between tourism and development is a bidirectional causal relationship, with papers affirming the existence of this relationship between tourism and development (Pulido-Fernández and Cárdenas-García, 2021 ).

Therefore, when examining the few studies that have analyzed the relationship between tourism and development, it may be concluded that contradictory and biased results exist. This may be due to the characteristics of the samples chosen, the variables used, and the methodology employed. Currently, there is no defined school of thought in the scientific literature with regard to the ability of tourism to improve living conditions for the resident population. This contrasts with the conclusions drawn regarding the relationship between tourism and economic growth.

This gap in the scientific literature provides an opportunity for new empirical studies that can analyze the relationship between tourism and development.

In this study, data from different sources of information were used with the objective of analyzing the relationship between tourism and economic development, in accordance with the methodology proposed in the following section. The data used in the present study are available for a total of 123 countries, covering all geographical areas worldwide. The specific data for these countries are as follows, including a web link to the availability of the data to provide greater transparency:

Tourist activity. The number of international tourists received was used as a variable for measuring tourist activity. For those countries for which this data was unavailable, the number of international visitors received was used, based on annual information provided by the United Nations Tourism between 1995 and the present (UN Tourism, 2022 ).

Data on international tourists received at a country level are available at https://www.unwto.org/tourism-data/global-and-regional-tourism-performance

Economic development. The HDI, developed by the United Nations Development Program and available annually from 1990 to the present day, was used as a variable for measuring economic development (United Nations Development Program, 2022 ).

Data from the HDI for each country are available at https://hdr.undp.org/data-center/human-development-index#/indicies/HDI

Total population. The de facto population was used as a measurement variable and counts all residents regardless of their legal status or citizenship. This information was provided by the World Bank and is available from 1960 to the present day, on an annual basis (World Bank, 2022 ).

Data on the population of the distinct countries are available and accessible at https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/sp.pop.totl .

Based on the data indicated above, the initial variables are transformed, specifically, in the case of tourism, through the use of the relativized per capita variable. A descriptive summary of the variables used in the analysis is presented in Table 1 . Finally, two variables have been used to analyze the relationship between tourism and economic development:

International tourists per inhabitant received in the country (number of international tourists / total population of the country), as a measure of tourism specialization. The unit of this variable is established at a relative value, by dividing the number of tourists by the population.

HDI of the country, as a measure of economic development. The unit of this variable is established at a relative value for each country, which, in all cases, is between 0 (lowest level of human development) and 1 (highest level of human development).

Regarding the tourist sector, the measurement of tourism is a subject that has generated great interest, and, on many occasions, the selection of different indicators leads to different results (Song and Wu, 2021 ). As a result, the results of the empirical analysis may be affected by the indicators used to represent the tourist demand (Fonseca and Sanchez-Rivero, 2020 ), with there being important differences between studies with respect to the tourism indicator. According to Rosselló-Nadal, He ( 2020 ), tourist arrivals or tourism expenditure are frequently used to measure tourist demand; however, when looking at the literature, differences in the results are found depending on the indicator considered. Indeed, in their study, which looked at 191 countries between 1998–2016, the authors found evidence that estimates may differ depending on the indicator used for the tourism demand of a destination (international tourist arrivals, or international tourist expenditure in this case). Other studies use indicators that do not measure the degree of tourist activity of a destination, as is the case for the number of tourist arrivals, the expenses, or the revenues. Instead, they consider an indicator that measures the degree of specialization that an economy has in tourism, for example, international tourist arrivals in per capita terms or expenditure or income as a percentage of GDP or exports. This work uses the number of international tourist arrivals, in relation to the population, and thus obtains the degree of tourism specialization of a destination (such as Dritsakis, 2012 ; Tang and Abosedra, 2016 ).

With regard to the measurement of economic development, the arrival of the HDI has resulted in a notable improvement in terms of GDP per capita, which is traditionally used to measure the progress of a country linked only to economic aspects (Lind, 2019 ). In fact, the HDI includes other noneconomic factors as it measures three key dimensions of development: a long and healthy life, being well-informed, and having a decent standard of living. This is why this index was created from the geometric mean of the normalized indices for each of the three dimensions indicated: (i) health: life expectancy at birth; (ii) education: years of schooling for adults and expected years of schooling for children; and (iii) standard of living: Gross National Income per capita (United Nations Development Program, 2022 ). Therefore, since the emergence of this index, there have been increasingly more studies that have incorporated HDI as a measurement of economic development. This variable has been shown to represent development better than other variables that are based exclusively on economic factors (Anand and Sen, 2000 ; Jalil and Kamaruddin, 2018 ; Ngoo and Tey, 2019 ; Ogwang and Abdou, 2003 ; Sajith and Malathi, 2020 ).

The time scale considered in this study covers the period between 1995–2019, in order to perform the broadest possible time analysis. On the one hand, there is an initial time restriction in terms of the data, given that the first data available on international tourist arrivals, provided by the United Nations Tourism, refer to the 1995 fiscal year. On the other hand, the data for the 2019 fiscal year are the latest in the time series analyzed. Therefore, the consequences of the COVID-19 crisis, which may have had a different impact at the country level, as well as the level of recovery in international tourist arrivals, do not affect the results of this work.

Methodology

In this work, an analysis is carried out involving the dynamics of two variables: tourism specialization and the HDI. Each of the countries considered in the analysis is represented by a two-dimensional time series of coordinates of these two variables.

In order to compare these dynamics and thereby find homogenous country groups sharing similar dynamics, it was first necessary to introduce a metric permitting this comparison. A fundamental issue in this analysis is that the units of measurement used for each variable are different and the relationship between them is unknown since tourism is measured in the number of tourists per inhabitant while the HDI is an index that varies between 0 and 1. Therefore, the frequently used Euclidean metrics are not valid for this analysis. For this reason, in this study, the problem was analyzed within the framework of complex systems by introducing the concept of “regimes”.

In economic literature, the term “regime” is used to characterize a type of behavior exhibited by one economy, which can be qualitatively distinguished from the “regime” that characterizes another economy. In this way, one regime is distinguished and differentiated from another, so that the economy as a whole may be considered a system of multiple regimes. Intuitively, an “economic regime” may be considered a set of rules governing the economy as a system and determining certain qualitative behaviors (Boehm and Punzo, 2001 ).

Regime changes, on the other hand, are associated with qualitative changes in the dynamics of an economy. Identifying and characterizing these regimes is a complex issue. For example, when working with mathematical models, a commonly used criterion is through Markov partitions (see Adler, 1998 ). Another widely used criterion when working with data is the division of the state space using various statistical indicators, such as the mean, median, etc. (see Brida and Punzo, 2003 ).

Firstly, a distance between countries was calculated to compare their trajectories; secondly, a symbolic time series analysis was used and the concept of “regime” was incorporated; as a result, the original two-dimensional series was transformed into a one-dimensional symbolic series. Then, a metric allowing for the comparison of the dynamic trajectories of the different countries was introduced; finally, a cluster analysis was performed to group the countries based on their dynamics.

The symbolic time series analysis methodology, still quite undeveloped in the field of economics, has been used in some previous works, such as that by Brida et al. ( 2020 ) that analyzes the relationship between tourism and economic growth. All analyses have been performed using RStudio software.

Time series symbolization

To identify the qualitatively relevant characteristics, the concepts of regime and regime dynamics were introduced (Brida, 2008 ; Brida et al., 2020 ). Each regime had its own economic performance model that made it qualitatively different from the rest. The partitioning of the space of tourism states and the development was established by means of annual averages of international arrivals per capita (x) and the HDI (y). The space was divided into four regions, which were determined by the annual averages of tourism and economic development, \({\bar{x}}_{t}\) and \({\bar{y}}_{t}\) respectively, with \(t=1,\ldots ,25\) . Using this partitioning of the states space into regimes, two types of dynamics are distinguished: one within each of the regimes and one of change between regimes. While the dynamic observed in each regime determines a performance model that differs from the models that act in the others, the dynamics of change from one region to another indicate where an economy is at each temporal moment. This dynamic describes performance in terms of tourism specialization and economic development in a qualitative way.

A change of regime of course signals some qualitative transformation. To explore these qualitative changes for every country, let us substitute a bi-dimensional time series \(\left\{\left({x}_{1},{y}_{1}\right),\,\left({x}_{2},{y}_{2}\right),\,\ldots ,\,\left({x}_{{\rm{T}}},{y}_{{\rm{T}}}\right)\right\}\) , by a sequence of symbols: \(s=\left\{{s}_{1},{s}_{2},\ldots ,{s}_{T}\right\}\) , such that \({s}_{t}=j\) if and only if \(\left({x}_{t},{y}_{t}\right)\) belongs to a selected state space region, \(\,{R}_{j}\) . It is defined four regions in the following way:

Regime 1: countries with above-average HDI and tourism specialization. In this regime, the most developed economies specializing in tourism are expected to be found. The majority of European countries are expected to be found in this regime; countries in other regions with a high level of tourism specialization could also be included.

Regime 2: countries with high HDI and low tourism specialization. In this regime, the most developed economies, but in which tourism activity has a less important weight in their economic base, are expected to be found. Some large countries such as the US and Germany are expected to be found in this regime. Other countries may also be found here even if they do not present similar levels of development as European countries, for example, they have higher levels in relative terms (above the sample average).

Regime 3: countries with low HDI and low tourism specialization. In this regime, economies with a lower level of development and where tourism activity is not relevant to their economic activity, are expected to be found. Countries such as China, other Asian countries, countries on the African continent, and countries in South America are expected to be included in this regime.

Regime 4: countries with low HDI and high tourism specialization. Countries with a lower level of development and a high level of tourism specialization, such as Caribbean countries and some island countries, are expected to be found in this regime.

Once the one-dimensional symbolic series is obtained, a metric is introduced that allows comparing the dynamics of the countries, and which in turn allows for obtaining homogeneous groups. Given the symbolic sequences \({\left\{{s}_{{it}}\right\}}_{t=1}^{t=T}\) and \({\{{s}_{{jt}}\}}_{t=1}^{t=T}\) the distance between two countries, i and j is given by.

Intuitively, the distance between two countries measures the number of years of regime non-coincidence during the period. If the distance between two countries is zero, the countries have been in the same regime for the entire period. On the contrary, if the distance between two countries is T, the countries have not coincided for any time during the analyzed period. If the distance between two countries is α, it means that they have not coincided for α years during the period. In other words, they have coincided for T-α years.

Using the defined distance, the hierarchical tree was created using the nearest neighbor cluster analysis method (Mantegna, 1999 ; Mantegna and Stanley, 2000 ). Using the algorithm by Kruskal ( 1956 ), the minimum spanning tree (MST) was created. This tree was created progressively, joining all the countries from the sample using a minimum distance. According to this algorithm, in the first step, the two countries whose series had the shortest distances were connected. In the second step, the countries with the second shortest distance were connected. This pattern continued until all countries were connected in one tree.

Symbolic time series analysis

Figure 1 shows the point cloud corresponding to 2019, with the respective averages of each variable. Each point represents a country in this year with its coordinates (Tourism, HDI). As is expected, the points are distributed in the four regions, showing that qualitatively the countries perform differently. A clustering in the second and third quadrants can be observed, indicating a clustering in the sections with a low level of tourism specialization, and, in turn, there are not many countries in the fourth quadrant. In other words, few countries have been considered to have a high level of tourism specialization but low levels of development, in the last year (Belize, Fiji, Jamaica, Saint Lucia, the Maldives, and Samoa).

Cloud of points of the 123 countries for the year 2019.

Table 2 shows the percentage of time spent by each of the 123 countries analyzed in each of the previously defined regimes, showing that the large majority of the countries (80 countries) remained in the same regime for the entire period or, at least, for three-quarters of the period analyzed in the same regime (16 countries). In this regard, using the symbolization of the series, 4 clear groups were identified, made up of countries that remained in the same regime for the entire period:

Group 1: made up of countries that are in regime 1 for the entire period (high level of tourism specialization and high level of development): Austria, Bahamas, Barbados, Switzerland, Cyprus, Spain, France, Greece, Hong Kong, Ireland, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, Malta, Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, and Singapore.

Group 2: made up of countries that are in regime 2 for the entire period (low level of tourism specialization and high level of development): Germany, Argentina, Australia, Chile, South Korea, Costa Rica, Cuba, the United States, Russia, Iran, Japan, Kazakhstan, Kuwait, Mexico, Panama, United Kingdom, Romania, Trinidad and Tobago, and Ukraine.

Group 3: made up of countries that are in regime 3 for the entire period (low level of tourism specialization and low level of development): Azerbaijan, Benin, Bangladesh, Bolivia, Central African Republic, China, Congo, Algeria, Egypt, Gambia, Guatemala, Guyana, Honduras, Haiti, Indonesia, India, Cambodia, Laos, Lesotho, Morocco, Mali, Myanmar, Mongolia, Malawi, Namibia, Niger, Nicaragua, Nepal, Philippines, Papua New Guinea, Paraguay, Sudan, Sierra Leone, El Salvador, Togo, Tuvalu, Tanzania, Uganda, Vietnam, Zambia, and Zimbabwe.

Finally, Group 4, made up of Belize and the Maldives, which are in regime 4 for the entire period (high level of tourism specialization and low level of development):

It is worth noting that according to the results obtained, regime changes can be difficult to observe. This could be a result of the fact that a regime change implies a structural change in the economy and in such a period as the one analyzed in this study (25 years), the observation of a structural change may be circumstantial in nature. In other words, the timing of structural changes seems to be slower than the tick of the chosen clock; in this case, an annual tick.

Within the group of countries that always remain in regime 1, two groups of countries can be identified. One of the groups is that in which tourism is an essential sector for the economy (like in the case of the Bahamas or Barbados, which have tourism contribution rates to GDP of above 25%), and in which tourism seems to have an influence in the high level of development. The other group is that in which, while tourism is not necessarily an essential sector for the economy, due to the existence of other economic activities, it is an important sector for development (such as Spain or Portugal, with tourism contribution rates to GDP of above 10%).

Within the group of countries that always remain in regime 2, there are fundamentally countries in which tourism has a marginal weight in relation to the level of population (like in the case of Germany, the US, and Japan), due to the lack of or little exploitation of the country’s tourism resources, which would result in development seeming to be related to other economic activities.

Within the group of countries that always remain in regime 3, there is a large group consisting of 41 countries (a third of the sample) that seem to be in a poverty trap, due to the low level of development and low level of tourism specialization. This is in such a way that the low level of development hinders the expansion of tourism activity, and, in turn, this lack of tourism development makes it difficult to increase the levels of development.

Finally, within the group of countries that always remain in regime 4, there are only two countries found, which are characterized by a high level of tourism specialization but have not transformed this into an improvement in development, possibly due to the existence of certain factors that hinder this relationship.

Therefore, the first issue to note is the little mobility that countries have in terms of their classification between the different regimes, given that 80 countries (two-thirds of the sample) remained in the same regime during the 25 years analyzed, which seems to show that the variables are somewhat stable, and thus justifies the fact that no major changes were observed during the period analyzed. This behavior reveals that the homogeneity in the tourism and development dynamic is the rule and not the exception.

In fact, only 27 countries, out of the 123 countries analyzed, are in a different regime for at least a quarter of the period: Albania, Armenia, Bulgaria, Brazil, Botswana, Canada, Colombia, Slovakia, Eswatini, Finland, Fiji, Hungary, Jamaica, Jordan, Lithuania, Latvia, Moldova, Malaysia, New Zealand, Peru, Saint Lucia, Sweden, Thailand, Tonga, Tunisia, Turkey, and Samoa.

In this regard, Fig. 2 shows the time evolution of the symbolic series for some selected countries. As can be noted, there are some countries, like Brazil, that always have a low level of tourism specialization and alternate between periods of high and low economic development, with it seeming as though there is consolidation as being a low HDI country in recent years (until 2002, Brazil had an above average level of development but, after it was hit by a crisis, the country moved to the low development regime. Then, in 2013, it managed to return to the high HDI regime, albeit temporarily as in 2016, in the midst of a political and economic crisis, it returned to the low development regime, where it currently remains). This is similar to what happened in Fiji, insofar as it was almost always specialized in tourism and alternated HDI, consolidating itself in Regime 4 of the low HDI. As such, it seems as though certain countries define their behavior according to the degree of tourism specialization; in this case, not particularly specialized countries.

Top panel: Brazil (left) and Fiji (right). Bottom panel: Latvia (left) and Eswatini (right).

However, the behavior of Latvia or Eswatini seems to be determined by HDI and not by tourism specialization. As to be expected, Latvia remained always in regimes 1 and 2 with a high HDI while Eswatini remained in regimes 3 and 4 with a low HDI. In both cases, they alternated periods of high and low specialization in tourism.

Grouping homogeneous countries

In the case analyzed, there are many countries with zero distance. These are the countries that have the same symbolic representation, that is, the regimes dynamics are coincidental given that these countries always remain in the same regime. Therefore, there are three groups that start to form with countries that have zero distance (countries that are always placed in regimes 1, 2, and 3), and a small group, formed by Belize and the Maldives, which are the only countries that remained in regime 4 for the entire period analyzed. According to this algorithm, 6 groups were obtained, while some countries were not included in any of the groups as they were considered to be “outliers”.

Specifically, there was a graph with 123 nodes corresponding to each country and 122 links; however, given that there were several countries with the same dynamic (the distance between these countries is zero), each of these groups is represented in a single node; that is, the countries that always remained in regime 1 were considered together as one single node, with the same happening for the remaining three groups of countries with identical dynamics (groups 2, 3, and 4). Therefore, in this case, there is a node representing 18 countries from group A and another node (both pink) that represents multiple countries; the Czech Republic, Estonia, Croatia, Mauritius, and Slovenia, which all share the same dynamic (they always remain in regime 1, except in 1995). There is a node representing 19 countries from group B (light blue), another node representing 41 countries from group C (green), and a final node representing Belize and Maldives in group D. In this way, 80 countries are represented in four nodes. To complete the tree, 38 other nodes, each corresponding to a country, were established. Using Kruskal’s algorithm ( 1956 ), the MST is built, in which all nodes are connected in a single tree from the minimum distances. In this way, a tree is created having links that connect the nodes to represent the minimum distances between them (a longer arrow indicates a longer distance).

Figure 3 shows the MST. It is worth noting the central position that these multiple nodes have within the groups, that is, nodes that represent a group of countries with the same dynamics. The structure of the MST seems to be almost linear; moreover, while group C (green) is the most numerous, it is also the most compact of the large groups.

(Nodes: Pink group A/Light blue group B/Green group C/Yellow group D/Orange group E/Blue group F/Red Outliers. Distances according to arrow color: black 1/red 2/light blue 3/green 4/blue 5/orange 6/pink 7/gray 8/violet 9).

Figure 4 shows the geographic distribution of the different groups. There are 6 groups (3 large and 3 small), while some countries are not included in any of these groups, as they are considered to be “outliers”:

Group A: Albania, Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Bahamas, Barbados, Switzerland, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Spain, Estonia, Finland, France, Greece, Hong Kong, Croatia, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Latvia, Malta, Mauritius, Malaysia, Netherlands, Norway, New Zealand, Portugal, Qatar, Singapore, Slovakia, Slovenia, and Uruguay. This group is made up of countries that predominantly remained in regime 1, that is, in general, these are countries with a high tourism specialization and high economic development.

Group B: Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Germany, Ecuador, United Kingdom, Iran, Israel, Jordan, Japan, Kazakhstan, South Korea, Kuwait, Sri Lanka, Mexico, North Macedonia, Panama, Peru, Poland, Romania, Russia, Tonga, Trinidad and Tobago, Ukraine, United States. This group is made up of countries that predominantly remained in regime 2, that is, in general, these are countries with a low tourism specialization and high economic development.

Group C: Azerbaijan, Benin, Bangladesh, Bolivia, Central African Republic, China, Congo, Dominican Republic, Algeria, Egypt, Gambia, Guatemala, Guyana, Honduras, Haiti, Indonesia, India, Cambodia, Laos, Lesotho, Mali, Morocco, Myanmar, Mongolia, Malawi, Namibia, Niger, Nicaragua, Nepal, Philippines, Papua New Guinea, Paraguay, Sudan, Sierra Leone, El Salvador, Togo, Tuvalu, Tanzania, Uganda, Vietnam, South Africa, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. This group is made up of countries that remained the majority of the time in regime 3, that is, in general, these are countries with a low tourism specialization and low economic development. With the exception of the Dominican Republic and South Africa (96% and 92%, respectively), all countries remained in regime 3 for the entire period.

Group D: Belize and the Maldives. This group is made up of the two countries that always remained in regime 4, that is, in general, these are countries with a high tourism specialization and low economic development.

Group E: Armenia, Moldova, Thailand, and Turkey. This group has the particular characteristic of having low tourism specialization throughout the period but alternating between a high level of development (regime 2) and a low level of development (regime 3).

Group F: Botswana, Jamaica, and Tunisia. This group is made up of countries that fundamentally remained in regime 4, that is, these are countries with a high tourism specialization and low economic development, however, unlike group D, they moved during the period analyzed through other regimes.

Outliers: Canada, Fiji, Saint Lucia, Sweden, Eswatini, and Samoa. These countries presented different dynamics and were not integrated into any of the previously-defined groups.

(Note: Pink: group A/Light blue: group B/Green: group C/Yellow: group D/Orange: group E/Blue: group F/Red: Outliers).

As can be seen, group A, which consists of countries with a high tourism specialization and high economic development, is basically made up of European countries, some Asian countries, and Uruguay (the only country in the Americas to be part of this group).

The countries in group B, that is, those countries with a good level of economic development, but a low specialization in the sector, are more geographically dispersed. This group consists of some European countries (in particular, Eastern European countries), a large part of Latin America and the Caribbean, as well as the US, Australia, and some Asian countries.

Group C, that is, those countries with a low tourism specialization and low economic development, consists of the vast majority of African countries, as well as a significant number of Asian countries, in addition to Bolivia and Paraguay in Latin America, as well as some countries in Central America.

The countries in Group D, that is, those countries that had a high tourism specialization but a low level of economic development throughout the period analyzed, as well as those in Group F, which were also in this regime for most of the period, do not have a uniform geographic pattern, since they are located on different continents.

Finally, the countries in Group E, that is, those countries with a low tourism specialization and alternating levels of economic development, are also geographically dispersed between Europe and Asia.

As can be seen in Table 3 both Group A and Group B are made up of countries with a high level of development; however, the countries in Group A, which also have a high level of tourism specialization, on average, have a significantly higher level of development than the countries in Group B, where the level of tourism specialization is low. These results appear to show that in terms of those countries specialized in tourism (Group A), the link with development is higher than for those countries that have achieved high levels of development due to the development of other economic activities.

Similar results can be found when comparing the data from Group C (countries with a low level of tourism specialization and low level of economic development) with the data from Groups D and F (countries with a high level of tourism specialization and low level of economic development). This is because, despite the level of development being low in all the countries, in the Group D and F countries, the level of development is significantly higher than in Group C countries. This appears to show that for those countries specialized in tourism (Groups D and F), the link with development is greater than for those countries that rely on other sectors as the basis of their economy.

Tourism’s relevance lies not only in its contribution to economic growth but also in the fact that the improved economic growth generated by the expansion of tourism activity may translate into improved living conditions for the host population. Due to this chained process, many countries have opted for this economic activity with the aim of improving income, education, and health. In short, they hope to increase their levels of human development.

Although distinct works have analyzed the relationship between tourism and human development by applying causality tests to determine the type of relationship between these variables, this study adopts a different approach. It analyzes the qualitative dynamic behavior between tourism and human development, to identify clusters of countries that display similar behavior with regard to this relationship.

Firstly, it is necessary to note the little movement there is of the countries between the different regimes, which indicates great stability, given that 80 countries (two-thirds of the sample) remained in the same regime throughout the entire period analyzed (1995–2019). These results regarding the stability of the countries in the different regimes differ significantly from the results obtained in other studies that have used the same technique for the analysis of the dynamic relationship between variables (Brida et al., 2020 ). This is because even when there is a movement of the countries between regimes, this happens, at most, between two or three regimes (Jordan and Samoa are the only exceptions, passing through all four regimes).

Furthermore, the results appear to show that groups of countries with a higher level of tourism specialization have higher levels of human development. Therefore, tourism is configured as an effective tool to improve development levels, as previously stated in works such as that of Cárdenas-García et al. ( 2015 ) conducting a joint analysis with data from 144 countries or Bojanic and Lo ( 2016 ), whose global analysis referred to a sample of 187 countries.

Specifically, these results are found both in the group of countries with the highest level of development, (countries of Group A versus the countries of Group B), as previously revealed in works such as that of Meyer and Meyer ( 2016 ) analyzing South Africa and that of Tan et al. ( 2019 ) analyzing Malaysia. These results were also found in the case of countries with a lower level of development (countries of Group D and F as compared to the countries of Group C), as previously suggested by works, such as that of Sharma et al. ( 2020 ) examining India or Croes ( 2012 ) analyzing Nicaragua.

However, despite these majority results, countries have been identified that, despite having an important tourism specialization (Belize, Botswana, Jamaica, Maldives, and Tunisia), had a low level of human development. This has not allowed for the high level of tourism specialization to become a tool to improve the living conditions of the population in these countries.

This exception may be due to the link between tourism and human development, which, in addition to being affected by the level of tourism specialization, also depends on the destination’s characteristics. These characteristics include the provision of infrastructure, the level of education, and the existing investment climate in the receiving countries, as previously suggested by Cárdenas-García and Pulido-Fernández ( 2019 ), or by the level of economic growth, the development of the urbanization process, or the degree of commercial openness of the receiving countries, as identified by Chattopadhyay et al. ( 2021 ).

Conclusions and policy implications

Distinct international organizations have shown that what is really important is not the contribution of tourism to economic growth, but rather, that this economic growth generated by the expansion of tourism activity permits the improvement of living conditions of the host population (EC, 2018 ; IADB - Inter-American Development Bank ( 2020 ); UNCTAD - United Nations Conference on Trade and Development ( 2020 )).

Given the importance of economic development for the host countries, empirical studies that analyze the relationship between tourism and economic development have begun to emerge. These works mainly link the multidimensional concept of development with human development, measured by the HDI. Here, the link between tourism and human development is produced through the economic growth generated by the expansion of tourism activity. This economic growth is used to develop policies to improve the host population’s education and health levels.

However, few such studies exist, and the scientific literature does not reveal a defined trend with regard to this relationship. Furthermore, most of these existing works rely on causality analyses to determine whether there is a relationship between tourism and human development. They do not analyze whether having a higher degree of tourism specialization, for groups of countries with similar levels of development, implies a higher level of human development, which would suggest that tourism promotes development to a greater extent than other economic activities.

Due to the methodology used, this empirical work cannot determine the type of relationship existing between tourism and development, that is, whether there is a unidirectional or bidirectional relationship between both variables. However, it does allow us to determine if countries with a higher level of tourism specialization have a higher level of development than those specializing in other productive activities.

This study aimed to contribute to the empirical discussion about the relationship between tourism and development through the use of a non-parametric and non-linear approach; specifically, the qualitative dynamic behavior of these two variables was compared using the definition of economic regime and clustering tools based on the concept of hierarchical and MST (Mantegna, 1999 ; Kruskal, 1956 ).

The results seem to indicate that tourism is an economic activity that can promote human development more than other economic activities. Indeed, at similar levels of human development, both in the case of countries with a high level of development (countries in Group A versus countries in Group B) and in the case of countries with a low level of development (countries in Groups D-F versus countries in Group C), the country groups with a higher level of tourism specialization have higher human development values than those countries specialized in other productive activities.

Therefore, public administrations should develop specific actions to increase the level of tourism specialization since tourism is a strategic tool that improves human development levels, as compared to other economic activities. It is necessary to invest in the improvement and expansion of tourism infrastructure, including the improvement of transportation systems in host destinations, increasing and improving the supply of accommodations and basic tourism-related services. Moreover, an attractive offer should be provided, both in terms of resources and attraction factors. This includes complementary services to attract a greater number of tourist flows, while developing destination promotion campaigns and, therefore, ensuring greater tourism specialization.

It should also be noted that, of the identified country groups, the most numerous one is that which includes countries from Group C, which is made up of 43 countries (approximately a third of the sample). This cluster is characterized by low tourism specialization and a low level of economic development, which seems to translate into a poverty trap, given that the low level of development prevents the expansion of the tourism activity, and, in turn, this lack of tourism development makes it difficult to increase the levels of development.

Policies should be developed that consider the lack of financial resources of these countries to carry out investment projects. International organizations and institutions linked to development, such as the United Nations Development Program, Inter-American Development Bank, or World Bank, should finance specific projects so that these countries may receive investments related to the improvement and expansion of tourism infrastructure, so as to improve human development through this activity. Suitable regulatory frameworks should be established in these countries, to encourage public-private collaboration for the development of tourism projects. In this way, private investments could make up for the lack of public financing in these destinations.

The analysis performed in this work has also identified groups of countries that, despite their high degree of tourism specialization, do not have high levels of human development (Belize, Botswana, Jamaica, Maldives, and Tunisia). This highlights the importance of identifying factors or characteristics that provide the destination with ideal initial conditions to permit the economic impacts generated by the expansion of tourism to be channeled into an improvement in human development. In addition to being conditioned by the host country’s level of tourism specialization, the link between tourism and human development also depends on infrastructure provision, education level, investment climate, urbanization level, and the degree of commercial openness. Although this current of scientific literature has not been widely studied, it has been addressed by some works analyzing the relationship between tourism and human development (Cárdenas-García and Pulido-Fernández, 2019 ; Chattopadhyay et al., 2021 ).

Policies established by public administrations should consider a dual objective: on the one hand, investing in the improvement and expansion of the tourism infrastructure and, on the other hand, increasing and improving the factors found to be determinant in configuring tourism as a tool for human development. Given that there are entities investing in projects linked to tourism aimed at improving the living conditions of the resident population, the failure to act on the determinant factors of this relationship could result in inefficient policies in terms of the allocation of resources linked to improved development.

Finally, this study has certain limitations, including the variables used to measure tourism specialization and economic development. With regard to tourism, it has been shown that changing the indicator used leads to differences in the results obtained. In terms of economic development, while other factors such as poverty level, quality of life, or income inequality are related to development, human development, and its measurement through HDI, is the most frequently used indicator to measure it. Moreover, the short period analyzed (1995–2019) is another limitation. There is a restriction in the initial period used since it is the first year in which data were available on development and this may determine the small variability between countries among the different regimes. Another limitation lies in the fact that it does not analyze the characteristics of the destination as a determinant in the relationship between tourism and human development, in accordance with the new current of the scientific literature. In terms of methodology, the choice of the measure used for the symbolization of the series can affect the results. For example, the mean may be influenced by outliers in the data, and this can be relevant for certain variables, such as tourism, which displays a high degree of variation. It would be interesting to perform the same exercise using other measures for the symbolization of the series, such as the truncated mean, the median, or some type of threshold.

Future lines of research may highlight the fact that this study consists of an analysis at the country level, although it is clear that the impacts of tourism are produced in the territory at the regional and local levels. As a result, it may be interesting to replicate this work at the regional level using different countries as an analysis, depending on the availability of such data.

Moreover, as a continuation of this study, in addition to the degree of tourism specialization, it may be interesting to analyze the type of tourism received by each of the groups of countries that have been identified. In other words, to examine whether the characteristics of the type of tourism received (accommodations, motivations, or level of expenditure) in each cluster also determine the relationship between tourism and human development. Furthermore, it may be interesting to introduce the influence of other factors on the relationship between tourism and development into the analysis of this relationship, as discussed previously in the limitations.

Data availability

The datasets generated during and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Adler R (1998) Symbolic dynamics and Markov partitions. Bull Am Math Soc 35(1):1–56

Article   MathSciNet   Google Scholar  

Alcalá-Ordóñez A, Segarra V (2023) Tourism and economic development: a literature review to highlight main empirical findings. Tour Econ. https://doi.org/10.1177/13548166231219638

Akadiri SS, Akadiri AC, Alola UV (2017) Is there growth impact of tourism? Evidence from selected small island states. Curr Issues Tour 22(12):1480–1498. https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2017.1381947

Article   Google Scholar  

Anand S, Sen A (2000) The income component of the human development index. J Hum Dev 1(1):83–106. https://doi.org/10.1080/14649880050008782

Andergassen R, Candela G (2013) Less developed countries, tourism investments and local economic development. Rev Dev Econ 17(1):16–33. https://doi.org/10.1111/rode.12012

Antonakakis N, Dragouni M, Filis G (2015) How strong is the linkage between tourism and economic growth in Europe? Econ Model 44:142–155. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econmod.2014.10.018

Antonakakis N, Dragouni M, Eeckels B, Filis G (2019) The tourism and economic growth enigma: examining an ambiguous relationship through multiple prisms. J Travel Res 58(1):3–24. https://doi.org/10.1177/0047287517744671

Balaguer J, Cantavella-Jordá M (2002) Tourism as a long-run economic growth factor: the Spanish case. Appl Econ 34:877–884. https://doi.org/10.1080/00036840110058923

Banerjee O, Cicowiez M, Morris EJ, Moreda A (2018) Boosting tourism’s contribution to growth and development: analysis of the evidence. Rev Dev Econ 22(3):1296–1320. https://doi.org/10.1111/rode.12385

Boehm B, Punzo LF (2001) Investment-productivity fluctuations and structural change. in Punzo, L.F. (ed), Cycles, growth and structural change, Routledge, London

Bojanic DC, Lo M (2016) A comparison of the moderating effect of tourism reliance on the economic development for islands and other countries. Tour Manag 53:207–214. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2015.10.006

Brida JG, Punzo LF (2003) Symbolic time series analysis and dynamic regimes. Struct Change Econ Dyn 14(2):159–183

Brida JG (2008) The dynamic regime concept in Economics. Int J Econ Res 5(1):55–76

ADS   Google Scholar  

Brida JG, Cortes-Jimenez I, Pulina M (2016) Has the tourism-led growth hypothesis been validated? A literature review. Curr Issues Tour 19(5):394–430. https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2013.868414

Brida JG, Matesanz-Gómez M, Segarra V (2020) On the empirical relationship between tourism and economic growth. Tour Manag 81:104131. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2020.104131

Cárdenas-García PJ, Pulido-Fernández JI (2019) Tourism as an economic development tool. Key factors. Curr Issues Tour 22(17):2082–2108. https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2017.1420042

Cárdenas-García PJ, Sánchez-Rivero M, Pulido-Fernández JI (2015) Does tourism growth influence economic development? J Travel Res 54(2):206–221. https://doi.org/10.1177/0047287513514297

Castro-Nuño M, Molina-Toucedo JA, Pablo-Romero MP (2013) Tourism and GDP: a meta-analysis of panel data studies. J Travel Res 52(6):745–758. https://doi.org/10.1177/0047287513478500

Chattopadhyay M, Kumar A, Ali S, Mitra SK (2021) Human development and tourism growth’s relationship across countries: a panel threshold analysis. J Sustain Tour 30(6):1384–1402. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2021.1949017

Chi J (2020) Revisiting the tourism-inequality nexus: evidence from a panel of developed and developing economies. Curr Issues Tour 24(6):755–767. https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2020.1743243

Chingarande A, Saayman A (2018) Critical success factors for tourism‐led growth. Int J Tour Res 20(6):800–818. https://doi.org/10.1002/jtr.2233

Cristelli M, Tacchella A, Pietronero L (2015) The heterogeneous dynamics of economic complexity. PloS One 10(2):e0117174. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0117174

Article   CAS   PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Croes R (2012) Assessing tourism development from Sen’s capability approach. J Travel Res 51(5):542–554. https://doi.org/10.1177/0047287511431323

Article   ADS   Google Scholar  

Croes R, Ridderstaat J, Van Niekerk M (2018) Connecting quality of life, tourism specialization, and economic growth in small island destinations: The case of Malta. Tour Manag 65:212–223. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2017.10.010

Croes R, Ridderstaat J, Bak M, Zientara P (2021) Tourism specialization, economic growth, human development and transition economies: the case of Poland. Tour Manag 82:104181. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2020.104181

Dritsakis N (2012) Tourism development and economic growth in seven Mediterranean countries: a panel data approach. Tour Econ 18(4):801–816. https://doi.org/10.5367/te.2012.0140

Easterly W (2002) The elusive quest for growth: Economists’ adventures and misadventures in the tropics. The MIT Press, Cambridge, MA

Google Scholar  

EC - European Commission (2018) Tourism and Transport: Key to Development. Luxembourg: European Commission

Eluwole KK, Bekun FV, Lasisi TT (2022) Fresh insights into tourism-led economic growth nexus: a systematic literature network analysis approach. Asia Pac J Tour Res 27(4):374–410. https://doi.org/10.1080/10941665.2022.2075775

Fahimi A, Akadiri SS, Seraj M, Akadiri AC (2018) Testing the role of tourism and human capital development in economic growth. A panel causality study of micro states. Tour Manag Perspect 28:62–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tmp.2018.08.004

Folarin O, Adeniyi O (2019) Does tourism reduce poverty in sub-Saharan African Countries? J Travel Res 59(1):140–155. https://doi.org/10.1177/0047287518821736

Fonseca N, Sánchez Rivero M (2020) Granger causality between tourism and income: a meta-regression analysis. J Travel Res 59(4):642–660. https://doi.org/10.1177/0047287519851189

Garza-Rodriguez J (2019) Tourism and poverty reduction in Mexico: an ARDL cointegration approach. Sustainability 11:845. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11030845

Hussain-Shahzad SJ, Shahbaz M, Ferrer R, Kumar RR (2017) Tourism-led growth hypothesis in the top ten tourist destinations: new evidence using the quantile-on-quantile approach. Tour Manag 60:223–232. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2016.12.006

IADB - Inter-American Development Bank (2020) Tourism Sector Assessment, Strategy, and Road Map for Development of the Caribbean Region. IADB, Washington DC

Jalil SA, Kamaruddin MN (2018) Examining the relationship between human development index and socio-economic variables: a panel data analysis. J Int Bus Econ Entrep 3(2):37–44. https://doi.org/10.24191/jibe.v3i2.14431

Kruskal JB (1956) On the shortest spanning tree of a graph and the traveling salesman problem. Proc Am Math Soc 7:48–50

Lee YS (2017) General theory of law and development. Cornell Int Law Rev 50(3):432–435

CAS   Google Scholar  

Li KX, Jin M, Shi W (2018) Tourism as an important impetus to promoting economic growth: a critical review. Tour Manag Perspect 26:135–142. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tmp.2017.10.002

Lin VS, Yang Y, Li G (2019) Where can tourism-led growth and economy-driven tourism growth occur? J Travel Res 58(5):760–773. https://doi.org/10.1177/0047287518773919

Lind N (2019) A development of the human development index. Soc Indic Res 146:409–423. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-019-02133-90

Mantegna RN (1999) Hierarchical structure in financial markets. Eur Phys J B 11:193–197. https://doi.org/10.1007/s100510050929

Article   ADS   CAS   Google Scholar  

Mantegna RN, Stanley HE (2000) An introduction to Econophysics: Correlations and complexity in finance. Cambridge University Press, UK

Meyer DF, Meyer N (2016) The relationship between the tourism sector and local economic development (Led): the case of the Vaal Triangle region, South Africa. J Environ Manag Tour 3(15):466–472

Ngoo YT, Tey NP (2019) Human development index as a predictor of life satisfaction. J Popul Soc Stud 27(1):70–86. https://doi.org/10.25133/JPSSV27N1.005

Nguyen C, Schinckus C, Su T, Chong F (2021) The influence of tourism on income inequality. J Travel Res 60(7):1426–1444. https://doi.org/10.1177/0047287520954538

OECD - Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (2010) Tourism Trends & Policies 2010. OECD, Paris

Ogwang T, Abdou A (2003) The choice of principal variables for computing some measures of human well-being. Soc Indic Res 64(1):139–152. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024788123572

Pérez-Rodríguez J, Rachinger H, Santana-Gallego M (2021) Testing the validity of the tourism-led growth hypothesis under long-range dependence. Curr Issues Tour 24(6):768–793. https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2020.1744537

Pulido-Fernández JI, Cárdenas-García PJ (2021) Analyzing the bidirectional relationship between tourism growth and economic development. J Travel Res 60(3):583–602. https://doi.org/10.1177/0047287520922316

Ranis G, Stewart F, Ramirez A (2000) Economic growth and human development. World Dev 28(2):197–219. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0305-750X(99)00131-X

Ridderstaat J, Croes R, Nijkamp P (2013) Tourism and long-run economic growth in Aruba. Int J Tour Res 16(5):472–487. https://doi.org/10.1002/jtr.1941

Ridderstaat J, Croes R, Nijkamp P (2016) The tourism development–quality of life nexus in a small island destination. J Travel Res 55(1):79–94. https://doi.org/10.1177/0047287514532372

Risso WA (2018) Tourism and economic growth: a worldwide study. Tour Anal 23(1):123–135. https://doi.org/10.3727/108354218X15143857349828

Rivera MA (2017) The synergies between human development, economic growth, and tourism within a developing country: an empirical model for Ecuador. J Destination Mark Manag 6:221–232. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdmm.2016.04.002

Rosselló-Nadal J, He J (2020) Tourist arrivals versus tourist expenditures in modelling tourism demand. Tour Econ 26(8):1311–1326. https://doi.org/10.1177/1354816619867810

Sajith GG, Malathi K (2020) Applicability of human development index for measuring economic well-being: a study on GDP and HDI indicators from Indian context. Indian Econ J 68(4):554–571. https://doi.org/10.1177/0019466221998620

Sen A (1990) Development as capability expansion. In Griffin K, Knight J (Eds.), Human development and the international development strategy for the 1990s (pp. 41–58). London, UK: McMillan

Sen A (1999) Development as freedom. Anchor Books, New York, NY

Sharma M, Mohapatra G, Giri AK (2020) Beyond growth: does tourism promote human development in India? Evidence from time series analysis. J Asian Financ Econ Bus 7(12):693–702. https://doi.org/10.13106/jafeb.2020.vol7.no12.693

Sokhanvar A, Çiftçioğlu S, Javid E (2018) Another look at tourism- economic development nexus. Tour Manag Perspect 26:97–106. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tmp.2018.03.002

Song H, Wu DC (2021) A critique of tourism-led economic growth studies. J Travel Res 61(4):719–729. https://doi.org/10.1177/004728752110185

Tang C, Abosedra S (2016) Does tourism expansion effectively spur economic growth in Morocco and Tunisia? Evidence from time series and panel data. J Policy Res Tour Leis Events 8(2):127–145. https://doi.org/10.1080/19407963.2015.1113980

Tang CF, Tan EC (2018) Tourism-led growth hypothesis: a new global evidence. Cornell Hosp Q 59(3):304–311. https://doi.org/10.1177/1938965517735743

Tan YT, Gan PT, Hussin MYM, Ramli N (2019) The relationship between human development, tourism and economic growth: Evidence from Malaysia. Res World Econ 10(5):96–103. https://doi.org/10.5430/rwe.v10n5p96

Todaro MP, Smith SC (2020) Economic Development. 13th Edition. Addison Wesley, Boston

UNCTAD - United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (2011) Fourth United Nations Conference on Least Developed Countries. UNCTAD, Istanbul

UNCTAD - United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (2020) Economic Development in Africa Report 2020: Tackling Illicit Financial Flows for Sustainable Development in Africa. UNCTAD, Geneva

Book   Google Scholar  

United Nations Development Programme (2022) Human Development Reports 2021/2022. United Nations Development Programme, New York

UN Tourism (2006) UNWTO’s declaration on tourism and the millennium goals: Harnessing tourism for the millennium development goals. United Nations Tourism, Madrid

UN Tourism (2022) Tourism Data Dashboard. United Nations Tourism, Madrid

Wahyuningsih D, Yunaningsih A, Priadana MS, Wijaya A, Darma DC, Amalia S (2020) The dynamics of economic growth and development inequality in Borneo Island, Indonesia. J Appl Econ Sci ume XV(67):135–143. https://doi.org/10.14505/jaes.v15.1(67).12 . Spring 1

World Bank (1991) World Development Report 1991: The Challenge of Development. Washington, D.C: World Bank

World Bank (2022) World Bank Open Data. Washington, D.C.: World Bank

Download references

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Department of Economics, University of Jaén, Campus Las Lagunillas s/n, Jaén, Spain

Pablo Juan Cárdenas-García

GIDE, Faculty of Economics, University of the Republic, Gonzalo Ramírez 1926, Montevideo, Uruguay

Juan Gabriel Brida & Verónica Segarra

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Contributions

PJCG: conceptualization, funding acquisition, investigation, project administration, validation, resources, original draft writing, final version writing. JGB: conceptualization, investigation, formal analysis, methodology, validation, visualization. VS: conceptualization, investigation, data curation, formal analysis, methodology, resources, software, validation, original draft writing, final version writing.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Pablo Juan Cárdenas-García .

Ethics declarations

Competing interests.

The authors declare no competing interests.

Ethical approval

This article does not contain any studies with human participants performed by any of the authors.

Informed consent

Additional information.

Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Supplementary information

Rights and permissions.

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modified the licensed material. You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of it. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ .

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article.

Cárdenas-García, P.J., Brida, J.G. & Segarra, V. A qualitative dynamic analysis of the relationship between tourism and human development. Humanit Soc Sci Commun 11 , 1125 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-03663-5

Download citation

Received : 11 March 2024

Accepted : 21 August 2024

Published : 02 September 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-03663-5

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

Quick links

• Explore articles by subject
• Guide to authors
• Editorial policies

UN Tourism | Bringing the world closer

Share this content.

• Share this article on facebook
• Share this article on twitter
• Share this article on linkedin
• Tourism and the Sustainable Development Goals – Journey to 2030
• All Regions
• ISBN 978-92-844-1940-1
• N PAG. 978-92-844-1940-1

A joint effort by UNWTO, UNDP and other partners, Tourism and the Sustainable Development Goals – Journey to 2030 aims to build knowledge, and empower and inspire tourism stakeholders to take necessary action to accelerate the shift towards a more sustainable tourism sector by aligning policies, business operations and investments with the SDGs. The publication intends to disentangle the links between tourism and the SDGs and provides recommendations on how to steer the road towards 2030, based on an analysis of 64 countries’ Voluntary National Reviews (VNRs) on the SDGs – submitted to the United Nations High-level Political Forum on Sustainable Development in 2016 and 2017 –, as well as eight Mainstreaming, Acceleration and Policy Support (MAPS) country roadmaps and corporate social responsibility (CSR) activities of 60 global tourism companies.

Related Content

Am news | vol. 67 august 2024, am news | vol. 66 july 2024, un tourism news 86: un tourism's impact: boosting gastr..., un tourism news 85: from small islands to global leader....

Now boarding: Faces, places, and trends shaping tourism in 2024

After falling by 75 percent in 2020, travel is on its way to a full recovery by the end of 2024. Domestic travel is expected to grow 3 percent annually and reach 19 billion lodging nights per year by 2030. 1 Unless otherwise noted, the source for all data and projections is Oxford Economics. Over the same time frame, international travel should likewise ramp up to its historical average of nine billion nights. Spending on travel is expected to follow a similar trajectory, with an estimated $8.6 trillion in traveler outlays in 2024, representing roughly 9 percent of this year’s global GDP.

About the authors

This article is a collaborative effort by Caroline Tufft , Margaux Constantin , Matteo Pacca , and Ryan Mann , with Ivan Gladstone and Jasperina de Vries, representing views from McKinsey’s Travel, Logistics & Infrastructure Practice.

There’s no doubt people still love to travel and will continue to seek new experiences in new places. But where will travelers come from, and where will they go? We developed a snapshot of current traveler flows, along with estimates for growth through 2030. For the purposes of this report, we have divided the world into four regions—the Americas, Asia, Europe, and the Middle East and Africa.

Our analysis identifies three major themes for industry stakeholders to consider:

• The bulk of travel spending is close to home. Stakeholders should ensure they capture the full potential of domestic travel before shifting their focus to international travelers. And they should start with international travelers who visit nearby countries—as intraregional trips represent the largest travel segment after domestic trips.
• Source markets are shifting. Although established source markets continue to anchor global travel, Eastern Europe, India, and Southeast Asia are all becoming fast-growing sources of outbound tourism.
• The destinations of the future may not be the ones you imagine. Alongside enduring favorites, places that weren’t on many tourists’ maps are finding clever ways to lure international travelers and establish themselves as desirable destinations.

The bulk of travel spending is close to home

International travel might feel more glamorous, but tourism players should not forget that domestic travel still represents the bulk of the market, accounting for 75 percent of global travel spending (Exhibit 1). Domestic travel recovered from the COVID-19 pandemic faster than international travel, as is typical coming out of downturns. And although there has been a recent boom in “revenge travel,” with travelers prioritizing international trips that were delayed by the pandemic, a return to prepandemic norms, in which domestic travel represents 70 percent of spending, is expected by 2030.

The United States is the world’s largest domestic travel market at $1 trillion in annual spending. Sixty-eight percent of all trips that start in the United States remain within its borders. Domestic demand has softened slightly, as American travelers return abroad. 2 Dawit Habtemariam, “Domestic U.S. tourism growth levels off as Americans head overseas,” Skift, August 18, 2023. But tourism players with the right offerings are still thriving: five national parks broke attendance records in 2023 (including Joshua Tree National Park, which capitalized on growing interest from stargazers indulging in “dark sky” tourism 3 Scott McConkey, “5 national parks set attendance records in 2023, and the reasons may surprise you,” Wealth of Geeks, April 16, 2024. ).

China’s $744 billion domestic travel market is currently the world’s second largest. Chinese travelers spent the pandemic learning to appreciate the diversity of experiences on offer within their own country. Even as borders open back up, Chinese travelers are staying close to home. And domestic destinations are benefiting: for example, Changchun (home to the Changchun Ice and Snow Festival) realized 160 percent year-on-year growth in visitors in 2023. 4 Shi Xiaoji, “Why don’t Chinese people like to travel abroad anymore? The global tourism industry has lost 900 billion yuan. What is the situation?,” NetEase, February 12, 2024. In 2024, domestic travel during Lunar New Year exceeded prepandemic levels by 19 percent.

China’s domestic travel market is expected to grow 12 percent annually and overtake the United States’ to become the world’s largest by 2030. Hotel construction reflects this expectation: 30 percent of the global hotel construction pipeline is currently concentrated in China. The pipeline is heavily skewed toward luxury properties, with more than twice as many luxury hotels under construction in China as in the United States.

India, currently the world’s sixth-largest domestic travel market by spending, is another thriving area for domestic travel. With the subcontinent’s growing middle class powering travel spending growth of roughly 9 percent per year, India’s domestic market could overtake Japan’s and Mexico’s to become the world’s fourth largest by 2030. Domestic air passenger traffic in India is projected to double by 2030, 5 Murali Krishnan, “Can India’s airports cope with rapid passenger growth?,” Deutsche Welle, February 7, 2024. boosted in part by a state-subsidized initiative that aims to connect underserved domestic airports. 6 “India is seeing a massive aviation boom,” Economist , November 23, 2023.

When travelers do go abroad, they often stay close to home (Exhibit 2).

Europe and Asia, in particular, demonstrate strong and growing intraregional travel markets.

Recognizing this general trend, stakeholders have been funneling investment toward regional tourism destinations. An Emirati wealth fund, for instance, has announced its intent to invest roughly $35 billion into established hospitality properties and development opportunities in Egypt. 7 Michael Gunn and Mirette Magdy, “UAE’s $35 billion Egypt deal marks Gulf powers’ buying spree,” Bloomberg, April 27, 2024.

Europe has long played host to a high share of intraregional travel. Seventy percent of its travelers’ international trips stay within the region. Europe’s most popular destinations for intraregional travelers are perennial warm-weather favorites—Spain (18 percent), Italy (10 percent), and France (8 percent)—with limited change to these preferences expected between now and 2030.

Despite longer travel distances between Asian countries, Asia’s intraregional travel market is beginning to resemble Europe’s. Intraregional travel currently accounts for about 60 percent of international trips in Asia—a share expected to climb to 64 percent by 2030. As in Europe in past decades, Asian intraregional travel is benefiting from diminishing visa barriers and the development of a low-cost, regional flight network.

Thailand is projected to enjoy continued, growing popularity with Asian travelers. Thailand waived visa requirements for Chinese tourists in 2023 and plans to do the same for Indian tourists starting in 2024. It has aggressively targeted the fast-growing Indian traveler segment, launching more than 50 marketing campaigns directed at Indians over the past decade. The investment may be paying off: Bangkok recently overtook Dubai as the most popular city destination for Indian tourists. 8 “Bangkok overtakes Dubai as top destination for Indians post visa relaxation, reveals Agoda,” PR Newswire, January 18, 2024.

A McKinsey ConsumerWise survey on consumer sentiment, conducted in February 2024, suggests that Chinese travelers are also exhibiting high interest in international travel, with 36 percent of survey respondents indicating that they intend to spend more on international travel in the next three months. 9 Daniel Zipser, “ China brief: Consumers are spending again (outside of China) ,” McKinsey, April 8, 2024. Much of this interest is directed toward regional destinations such as Southeast Asia and Japan, with interest in travel to Europe down from previous years. 10 Guang Chen, Zi Chen, Steve Saxon, and Jackey Yu, “ Outlook for China tourism 2023: Light at the end of the tunnel ,” McKinsey, May 9, 2023.

Given travelers’ preference for proximity, how can tourism stakeholders further capitalize on domestic and intraregional travel demand? Here are a few strategies:

• Craft offerings that encourage domestic tourists to rediscover local gems. Destinations, hotels, and transportation providers can encourage domestic tourists to integrate lesser-known cultural landmarks into their trips to visit friends and relatives. In France, the upscale hotel chain Relais & Châteaux markets historic properties that lie far from classic tourist sights—such as Château Saint-Jean in rural Auvergne—as a welcome escape from the bustle of Paris. In Mexico, the Pueblos Mágicos program has successfully boosted domestic tourist visits to a set of “magical towns” that showcase Mexican heritage.
• Fold one-off domestic destinations into fuller itineraries. Route 66 in the United States is a classic road trip pathway, which spurs visits to attractions all along the highway’s length. Tourism stakeholders can collaborate to create similar types of domestic itineraries around the world. For instance, Mexico has expanded on its Pueblos Mágicos concept by branding coordinated visits to multiple villages as “magical routes.” In France, local tourism boards and vineyards have collaborated to promote bucket list “wine routes” around the country.
• Make crossing borders into neighboring countries seamless. Removing logistical barriers to travel can nudge tourists to upgrade a one-off trip to a single attraction into a bucket list journey across multiple, less-trodden destinations. In Africa, for example, Ethiopian Airlines is facilitating cross-border travel to major regional tourist sites through improved air connectivity. In Asia, Thailand has announced its intent to create a joint visa easing travel among Cambodia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam.

Source markets are shifting

The United States, Germany, the United Kingdom, China, and France remain the world’s five largest sources of travelers, in that order. These countries collectively accounted for 38 percent of international travel spending in 2023 and are expected to remain the top five source markets through 2030. But interest in travel is blossoming in other parts of the world—causing a shift in the balance of outbound travel flows (Exhibit 3).

North Americans’ travel spending is projected to hold steady at roughly 3 percent annual growth. US consumers voice growing concerns about inflation, and the most cost-constrained traveler segments are reducing travel, which is affecting ultra-low-cost airlines and budget hotels. Most travelers, however, plan to continue traveling: McKinsey research suggests that American consumers rank international and domestic travel as their highest-priority areas for discretionary spending. Instead of canceling their trips, these consumers are adapting their behavior by traveling during off-peak periods or booking travel further in advance. Travel spending by Europeans paints a slightly rosier picture, with roughly 5 percent projected annual growth. Meanwhile, the projected 12 percent annual growth in Chinese travelers’ spending should anchor substantial increases in travel spending across Northeast Asia.

Alongside these enduring traveler segments, new groups of travelers are emerging. Eastern Europe, India, and Southeast Asia are still comparatively small source markets, but they are developing fast-growing pools of first-time tourists (Exhibit 4).

India’s breakneck GDP growth of 6 percent year over year is bolstering a new generation of travelers, 11 Benjamin Laker, “India will grow to become the world’s third-largest economy by 2027,” Forbes , February 23, 2024. resulting in a projected annual growth in travel spending of 9 percent between now and 2030. Indian air carriers and lodging companies are making substantial investments to meet projected demand. Budget airline IndiGo placed the largest aircraft order in commercial aviation history in 2023, when it pledged to buy 500 Airbus A320 planes 12 Anna Cooban, “Biggest plane deal in history: Airbus clinches massive order from India’s IndiGo,” CNN, June 19, 2023. ; that same week, Air India nearly equaled IndiGo’s order size with purchase agreements for 250 Airbus and 220 Boeing jets. IndiGo later added an order for 30 additional Airbus A350 planes, well suited to serving both domestic and international routes. 13 “Airbus confirms IndiGo's A350 aircraft order,” Economic Times , May 6, 2024. The Indian Hotels Company Limited is ramping up its hotel pipeline, aiming to open two new hotels per month in the near future. International players are not sitting on the sidelines: seven hotel chains are launching new brands in India in 2024, 14 Peden Doma Bhutia, “Indian Hotels expansion plans: 2 new brands launching, 2 hotels opening every month,” Skift, February 2, 2024. including Marriott’s first Moxy- and Tribute-branded hotels in India and entrants from Hilton’s Curio and Tapestry brands. 15 Forum Gandhi, “Check-in frenzy: International hotel giants unleash fresh brands in India’s booming hospitality landscape,” Hindu Businessline , February 13, 2024. Development focus has shifted away from major metropolises such as Mumbai and Delhi and toward fast-developing, smaller cities such as Chandigarh and Hyderabad.

Southeast Asian travel spending is projected to grow at roughly 7 percent per year. Pockets of particularly high growth exist in Cambodia, Malaysia, and the Philippines. To capitalize on this blossoming source market, neighboring countries are rolling out attractive visa arrangements: for example, China has agreed to reciprocal visa waivers for short-term travelers from Malaysia, Singapore, and Thailand. 16 Julienna Law, “China launches ‘visa-free era’ with Southeast Asia. Will travel retail boom?,” Jing Daily , January 30, 2024.

Travel spending by Eastern Europeans is expected to grow at 7 percent per year until 2030—two percentage points higher than spending by Western Europeans. Areas of especially high growth include the Czech Republic, Hungary, and Poland, where middle-class travelers are increasingly venturing farther afield. Major tourism players, including the TUI Group, have tapped into these new source markets by offering charter flights to warm-weather destinations such as Egypt. 17 Hildbrandt von Klaus, “TUI develops Czech Republic as a new source market,” FVW, December 22, 2023.

Although the number of travelers from these new source markets is growing, their purchasing power remains relatively limited. Compared with Western European travelers (who average $159 per night in total travel spending), South Asians spend 20 percent less, Eastern Europeans spend 40 percent less, and Southeast Asians spend 55 percent less. Only 3 percent of the current Asian hotel construction pipeline caters to economy travelers, suggesting a potential supply gap of rooms that could appeal to budget-constrained tourists.

While acknowledging that historical source markets will continue to constitute the bulk of travel spending, tourism players can consider actions such as these to capitalize on growing travel demand from newer markets:

• Reduce obstacles to travel. Countries can look for ways to strategically invest in simplifying travel for visitors from growing source markets. In 2017, for example, Azerbaijan introduced express processing of electronic visas for Indian visitors; annual arrivals from India increased fivefold in two years. Requirements regarding passport photocopies or in-person check-ins can similarly be assessed with an eye toward reducing red tape for travelers.
• Use culturally relevant marketing channels to reach new demographics. Unique, thoughtful marketing strategies can help destinations place themselves on first-time travelers’ bucket lists. For example, after the release of Zindagi Na Milegi Dobara , a popular Bollywood movie shot in Spain with support from the Spanish Ministry of Tourism, Indian tourism to Spain increased by 65 percent. 18 “ Zindagi Na Milegi Dobara part of syllabus in Spain colleges,” India Today , June 6, 2004.
• Give new travelers the tech they expect. Travelers from newer source markets often have access to tech-forward travel offerings. For example, Indian travelers can travel anywhere within their country without physical identification, thanks to the Digi Yatra app. The Southeast Asian rideshare app Grab has several helpful travel features that competitors lack, such as automated menu translation and currency conversion. Tourism stakeholders should consider how to adapt to the tech expectations of newer travelers, integrating relevant offerings that ease journeys.
• Create vibrant experiences tailored to different price points. Crafting lower-budget offerings for more cost-constrained travelers doesn’t need to result in giving them a subpar experience. Capsule hotels, in which guests sleep in small cubbies, began as a response to the high cost of accommodations in Japan, but they have become an attraction in their own right—appearing on many must-do lists. 19 Philip Tang, “24 of the best experiences in Japan,” Lonely Planet, March 23, 2024.

The places you’ll go: The destinations of the future may not be the ones you imagine

The world’s top ten destination countries (the United States, Spain, China, France, Saudi Arabia, Türkiye, Italy, Thailand, Japan, and India, in that order) currently receive 45 percent of all travel spending, including for domestic travel. But some new locales are gaining traction (Exhibit 5).

A significant number of travelers are expanding their horizons, booking journeys to less visited countries that are near to old standbys. For instance, Laos and Malaysia, which both border Thailand—an established destination that is home to Bangkok, the world’s most visited city 20 Katherine LaGrave, “This is the world’s most visited city,” AFAR , January 31, 2024. —are up a respective 20 percent and 17 percent, respectively, in year-over-year international travel spending.

The world’s top ten destination countries currently receive 45 percent of all travel spending, including domestic-travel spending. But some new locales are gaining traction.

Several other countries that have crafted thoughtful tourism demand generation strategies—such as Peru, the Philippines, Rwanda, and Vietnam—are also expected to reap benefits in the coming years. Vietnam logged a remarkable 40 percent increase in tourism spending in the five years before the pandemic. Postpandemic, it has rebounded in part by waiving visa requirements for European travelers (while indicating intent to offer similar exemptions in the future for Chinese and Indian travelers). 21 Ashvita Singh, “Vietnam looks to offer visa-free entry to Indians: India report,” Skift, November 20, 2023. The Philippines has made a concerted effort to shift its sun-and-beach branding toward a more well-rounded image, replacing its long-standing “It’s more fun in the Philippines” tourism slogan with “Love the Philippines.” Peru is highlighting less visited archeological sites while also marketing itself as a top-notch culinary destination through the promotion of Peruvian restaurants abroad. Rwanda is investing in infrastructure to become a major African transit hub, facilitated by Qatar Airways’ purchase of a 60 percent stake in the country’s major airport. 22 Dylan Cresswell, “Rwanda plots ambitious tourism recovery,” African Business , July 28, 2022. Rwanda has also successfully capitalized on sustainable tourism: by charging $1,500 per gorilla trekking permit, for instance, it has maximized revenue while reducing environmental impact.

Tourism players might consider taking some of these actions to lure tourists to less familiar destinations:

• Collaborate across the tourism ecosystem. Promotion is not solely the domain of destination marketing organizations. Accommodation, transportation, and experience providers can also play important roles. In Singapore, for instance, the luxury resort Marina Bay Sands partners extensively with Singapore Airlines and the Singapore Tourism Board to offer compelling tourism offerings. Past collaborations have included flight and stay packages built around culinary festivals. 23 “Singapore Tourism Board, Marina Bay Sands & UOB partner to enliven Marina Bay precinct,” Singapore Tourism Board news release, January 25, 2024.
• Use infrastructure linkage to promote new destinations. By extending route options, transportation providers can encourage visitors to create itineraries that combine familiar destinations with new attractions. In Asia, Thailand’s tourism authority has attempted to nudge visitors away from the most heavily trafficked parts of the country, such as Bangkok and Phuket, and toward less popular destinations.
• Deploy social media to reach different demographics. Innovative social media campaigns can help put a destination on the map. Australia launched its “Ruby the kangaroo” campaign in China to coincide with the return of postpandemic air capacity between the two places. A video adapted for Chinese context (with appropriate gestures and a hashtag in Mandarin) garnered more than 20 million views in a single day on one of China’s largest social media platforms. 24 Nicole Gong, “Can Ruby the kangaroo bring Chinese tourists hopping back to Australia?,” SBS, June 5, 2023.
• Embrace unknown status. “Off the beaten path” messaging can appeal to widely traveled tourists seeking fresh experiences. Saudi Arabia’s “#WhereInTheWorld” campaign promoted the country’s tourist spots by acknowledging that they are less familiar to travelers, using a series of images that compared these spots with better-known destinations.

As tourism stakeholders look to the future, they can take steps to ensure that they continue to delight existing travelers while also embracing new ones. Domestic and intraregional tourism remain major opportunities—catering to local tourists’ preferences while building infrastructure that makes travel more seamless within a region could help capture them. Creative collaboration among tourism stakeholders can help put lesser-known destinations on the map. Travel tides are shifting. Expertly navigating these currents could yield rich rewards.

Caroline Tufft is a senior partner in McKinsey’s London office, Margaux Constantin is a partner in the Dubai office, Matteo Pacca is a senior partner in the Paris office, Ryan Mann is a partner in the Chicago office, Ivan Gladstone is an associate partner in the Riyadh office, and Jasperina de Vries is an associate partner in the Amsterdam office.

The authors wish to thank Abdulhadi Alghamdi, Alessandra Powell, Alex Dichter, Cedric Tsai, Diane Vu, Elisa Wallwitz, Lily Miller, Maggie Coffey, Nadya Snezhkova, Nick Meronyk, Paulina Baum, Peimin Suo, Rebecca Stone, Sarah Fellay, Sarah Sahel, Steffen Fuchs, Steffen Köpke, Steve Saxon, Sophia Wang, and Urs Binggeli for their contributions to this article.

This article was edited by Seth Stevenson, a senior editor in the New York office.

Explore a career with us

Related articles.

The future of tourism: Bridging the labor gap, enhancing customer experience

The promise of travel in the age of AI

From India to the world: Unleashing the potential of India’s tourists

• Visit Our Blog about Russia to know more about Russian sights, history
• Check out our Russian cities and regions guides
• Follow us on Twitter and Facebook to better understand Russia
• Info about getting Russian visa , the main airports , how to rent an apartment
• Our Expert answers your questions about Russia, some tips about sending flowers

Russian regions

• Amur oblast
• Buryat republic
• Chukotka okrug
• Jewish autonomous oblast
• Kamchatka krai
• Khabarovsk krai
• Magadan oblast
• Primorye krai
• Sakha republic
• Sakhalin oblast
• Zabaikalsky krai
• Map of Russia
• All cities and regions
• Blog about Russia
• News from Russia
• How to get a visa
• Flights to Russia
• Russian hotels
• Renting apartments
• Russian currency
• FIFA World Cup 2018
• Submit an article
• Flowers to Russia
• Ask our Expert

Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk city, Russia

The capital city of Sakhalin oblast .

Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk - Overview

Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk is a city located in the southern part of Sakhalin Island in the Far East of Russia, the administrative center of Sakhalin Oblast.

The population of Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk is about 201,700 (2022), the area - 164 sq. km.

The phone code - +7 4242, the postal codes - 693000-693904.

Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk city flag

Yuzhno-sakhalinsk city coat of arms.

Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk city map, Russia

Yuzhno-sakhalinsk city latest news and posts from our blog:.

29 October, 2019 / Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk - the view from above .

History of Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk

Foundation of yuzhno-sakhalinsk.

The Russians first visited Sakhalin Island in 1742. In 1805, the Russian-American Company sent Adam Johann von Krusenstern, a Russian admiral and explorer, to Sakhalin to hoist the Russian flag on the island. Officially, neither Russia nor Japan claimed Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands. In 1855, a treatise on friendship and the border was signed in Shimoda, which marked the beginning of diplomatic relations between Russia and Japan. According to it, Sakhalin remained jointly owned by the two countries.

The settlement of Sakhalin by Russians was mainly due to exiled convicts. In 1869, Sakhalin was officially declared a place of exile and hard labor. In 1875, the St. Petersburg Treaty was signed between the Russian Empire and Japan, according to which Sakhalin completely went to Russia and the Kuril Islands - to Japan.

In 1881, according to the order of the military governor of the Primorsky region, Major Vladimir Yantsevich was appointed head of exiles in South Sakhalin. He received the following instructions: “For the settlement of those who are finishing their terms of hard labor, a place that is quite convenient for arable farming should be chosen. The selected site, if possible along the main road from south to north, should be planned, divided into sections and, as a new settlement, named by some permanent name.”

In 1883, Yantsevich applied for the approval of the names of four new villages founded in the south of Sakhalin: Solovyovskoe, Mitsulskoe, Vladimirovka (future Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk), and Vlasovskoe. In 1885, 57 people lived in Vladimirovka, in 1895 - 130 people. In 1897, there were 150 residential and commercial buildings here: a church, a school, a post office, a hospital, a mill, trade shops, a number of government buildings, and a lot of residential log houses.

More historical facts…

Japanese period in the history of Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk

In 1905, after the defeat of the Russian Empire in the Russo-Japanese War, according to the Treaty of Portsmouth, part of Sakhalin south of the 50th parallel was ceded to the Japanese Empire and became the Karafuto Prefecture. The northern part of Sakhalin remained under the control of the Russian Empire.

In 1908, Vladimirovka was renamed Toyohara (“bountiful plain”). In 1915, the settlement received the status of a town. The Japanese made their own plan for the development of the town with a clear rectangular planning system with the direction of streets along the railway and perpendicular to it.

The building density was high, as a result, a significant number of residential buildings were without outbuildings, sheds and other ancillary buildings, as well as yards. On the outskirts of the town there was a well-maintained park with an artificial reservoir. In 1920, the population of Toyohara was 14,176 people, in 1935 - 28,459.

On February 11, 1945, Stalin, Roosevelt and Churchill signed an agreement in Yalta on the conditions for the USSR’s entry into the war against Japan. Among the conditions were the return of South Sakhalin to the USSR and the annexation of the Kuril Islands. In August 1945, Soviet troops entered Toyohara.

This is what Toyohara looked like from the words of Dmitry Kryukov, head of the civil administration of South Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands, who arrived in the town in September 1945: “The town mainly consists of wooden buildings. The houses are adjacent to each other, timber-frame, plastered. Many of them look good, but they are cold.” The majority of the population were Japanese and Koreans.

Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk - the capital of Sakhalin Oblast

On February 2, 1946, Yuzhno-Sakhalin Oblast was formed on the territory of South Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands. On June 4, 1946, Toyohara became its administrative center. It was renamed Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk (“South Sakhalin City”).

On January 2, 1947, Yuzhno-Sakhalin Oblast was liquidated and its territory was included in Sakhalin Oblast, a separate region of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic. On April 18, 1947, Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk became its administrative center.

In the spring of 1947, the mass repatriation of the Japanese began. By August 1, 1947, 124,308 people left Sakhalin, almost half of the local Japanese. During 1947-1949, about 400 thousand people were brought to Sakhalin from the central regions of Russia, Primorye and the Far East. By 1949, only 2,682 Japanese remained on Sakhalin - those who managed to obtain a Soviet passport. The Koreans from Sakhalin were not forcibly evicted, so most of them stayed. In 1959, the population of Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk was 85,510 people.

In subsequent years, the appearance of Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk changed again - the frame houses built by the Japanese were demolished. Today, except for the railway and some buildings of that time turned into museums, almost nothing reminds of the Japanese period in the history of this city.

General views of Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk

Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk from above

Author: Vladislav Yarowind

General view of Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk

Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk cityscape

Author: Shinya Ichinohe

Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk - Features

Sakhalin Oblast is the only region in Russia located entirely on the islands. Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk stands at some distance from the sea coast, about 25 km from the coast of the Sea of Okhotsk. Chekhov Peak (1,045 m), one of the highest peaks of Sakhalin, rises to the north-east of the city. Locals call the city simply Yuzhnyy.

Sakhalin Island is part of the temperate monsoon zone. Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk is located on a plain surrounded by hills, due to which its climate has certain peculiarities. In summer, it can be very hot in Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk, and in winter, due to the lack of wind, severe frosts. The coldest month is January with an average daily temperature of minus 12.2 degrees Celsius, the warmest month is August with an average daily temperature of plus 17.3 degrees Celsius. Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk is equated to the regions of the Far North.

The city is located in an earthquake-prone area. The probability of strong earthquakes is relatively high. The distance from Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk to Moscow is 9,140 km by road and 6,640 km in a straight line.

The majority of the population is Russian, but the proportion of Koreans is also high (about 20%). Out of 43 thousand Sakhalin Koreans, most of them live in the capital of the region. In the city you can also find representatives of the indigenous peoples: Nivkhs, Ainu and Oroks, but their number is very small.

Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk is the largest transport hub on Sakhalin. Anton Chekhov Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk Airport offers regular flights to such cities as Vladivostok, Krasnoyarsk, Novosibirsk, Khabarovsk, Moscow, Komsomolsk-on-Amur, Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky, Seoul (South Korea), Sapporo (Japan), Tokyo (Japan).

In Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk, there is a high level of air pollution due to the high motorization of the population and the location of the city in the valley, which slows down the dispersion of harmful substances.

Today, it is one of the dynamically developing cities of the Far East, the production and intellectual center of Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands. Oil and natural gas production, as well as their processing, are the most important components of the local economy.

This is one of the most visited cities in the Far Eastern Federal District of Russia. Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk is often visited by cruise ship passengers (mostly Japanese citizens). Restaurants of Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk offer dishes of Russian, Chinese, Korean, Japanese, Uzbek, Georgian, Italian cuisines.

The architecture of the period of the Karafuto Prefecture gives a special flavor to Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk. Today, in the city there are about 40 objects of cultural heritage of this period. In the future, tourism should become the basis for the economic development of Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk.

Special thanks to Vladislav Yarowind for the photos of Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk.

Main Attractions of Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk

Sakhalin Regional Museum of Local Lore - the central museum of Sakhalin Oblast founded in 1896. It is housed in a very picturesque Japanese building constructed in the Imperial Crown Style in 1937. This is the only such building on the territory of Sakhalin and all of Russia, the most significant architectural monument of Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk. Its diverse expositions are devoted to nature, history of the indigenous peoples of the islands, culture and development of Sakhalin. Kommunisticheskiy Avenue, 29.

Sports and Tourist Complex “Gornyy Vozdukh” (“Mountain Air”) - a ski resort and sports complex, existing, according to one version, since the days of the Japanese Karafuto Prefecture (1905-1945). Today, it is one of the most dynamically developing ski resorts in the Far East of Russia.

The unique location of the complex - in the center of Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk - allows guests to find themselves in the world of winter sports in just a few minutes. The ski resort offers 10 slopes of various difficulty levels for both beginners and professionals. Their total length is over 23 km. The ski season lasts from December to the end of April.

It is one of the main organizers of excursion tours in Sakhalin Oblast: sports, excursion, business tourism, as well as ecological tourism. The complex has a network of hiking and cycling routes. There are also restaurants and cafes here.

Museum and Memorial Complex “Pobeda” (“Victory”) - a square with a cultural and educational center, where you can find historical expositions dedicated to the Russian-Japanese and World War II. A T-34-85 tank is installed on a pedestal in front of the building. Pobedy Avenue, 1.

Museum of the History of the Sakhalin Railway . This museum is dedicated to the history of railway construction on Sakhalin. The exposition has a lot of interesting and rare exhibits. In the open area of the museum, Sakhalin railway equipment is exhibited: steam locomotives, carriages of various types, etc. Vokzalnaya Street, 55.

Sakhalin Regional State Art Museum - the only art museum in Sakhalin Oblast with over 11 thousand works of art. On the ground floor, temporary art exhibitions are held, the art of artists from Russia, Korea and China is presented. The second floor houses permanent exhibitions: “Contemporary Korean Art”, “Christian Art”, “Russian Art of the 19th - early 20th centuries.” Lenina Street, 137.

Museum of the Book of Anton Chekhov “Sakhalin Island” . This museum is dedicated to Anton Chekhov’s trip to Sakhalin in 1890, as a result of which he wrote the book “Sakhalin Island”. Here you can find the following collections: “Painting”, “Graphics”, “Written Sources”, “Photo Materials”, “Numismatics/Phaleristics”, “Household Items, Arts and Crafts”, “Sculpture”. The personal belongings of Chekhov’s family members and various items belonging to exiles are exhibited here. Mira Avenue, 104.

Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk Park of Culture and Rest named after Yuri Gagarin - the most beautiful recreational area of Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk founded in the Japanese period of the city’s history in 1906. In 1968, when the famous cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin died in a jet crash, the park was renamed in his honor. Today, this place attracts visitors with its amazing landscapes and an abundance of entertainment. Sakura blooms here in spring. Detskaya Street, 1.

Resurrection Cathedral - the first church in Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk built in the 1990s. This one-domed cathedral in the pseudo-Russian style looks surprisingly graceful and is located in the immediate vicinity of Gagarin Park. Svyatitelya Innokentiya Boulevard, 3k1.

Cathedral of the Nativity . The height of this church, consecrated in 2016, is 77 m, which is why it effectively dominates the surrounding landscape. Accommodating up to 1,000 people, it is built in the Novgorod style with a gilded dome surrounded by four bright blue ones. Inside, you can admire the five-tiered iconostasis in the Russian style, decorated with 98 icons. The outer walls are decorated with mosaics created in Jerusalem. Ilarion Troitsky Street, 1.

Chekhov Peak . Several picturesque mountain peaks are located in the vicinity of Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk. The highest one (1,045 m) is named after the famous Russian writer Anton Chekhov. The trip to the top takes several hours. From the height of Chekhov Peak you can admire the city itself, the waters of Aniva Bay and the Sea of Okhotsk. On a cloudless day, you can even see the northern tip of the Japanese island of Hokkaido. There is a small Japanese temple at the top of the peak.

Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk city of Russia photos

Architecture of yuzhno-sakhalinsk.

Winter in Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk

Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk architecture

Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk modern architecture

Author: Alexander Mikhalev

Churches of Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk

Wooden Church of St. Nicholas in Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk

The Roman Catholic Church Parish of Saint James in Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk

Resurrection Cathedral in Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk

Author: Snejanna Baggerovski

Sakhalin Regional Museum of Local Lore

The main building of the Sakhalin Regional Museum of Local Lore

Old Russian 11-inch gun (1867) in Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk

The comments of our visitors

• Currently 3.13/5

Rating: 3.1 /5 (184 votes cast)

• Weather Guides For Every Country In The World
• Algeria: Two Week Journey
• Cairo Travel Guide
• Best Time to Visit Lesotho
• Burkina Faso
• Central African Republic
• Côte d’Ivoire (Ivory Coast)
• Democratic Republic of the Congo
• Equatorial Guinea
• Guinea-Bissau
• Best Time to Visit
• Entry Rules and Visa requirements
• Salt Cathedral of Zipaquirá
• Dominican Republic
• Antigua and Barbuda
• El Salvador
• Afghanistan
• Bahrain Travel Guide
• The Cook Islands
• Aktau, Kazakhstan: Travel Guide and Tips
• Roadtrip in Western Kyrgyzstan
• Journey around Issyk-Kul
• Pakistan travel guide
• Albania Road Trip Guide
• Albania’s Entry Rules
• Yerevan Travel Guide
• Faroe Islands
• Suburbs of Paris
• Batumi Travel Guide
• Tbilisi Raves
• From Mestia to Ushguli (Svaneti) Trekking Route
• Transadjarian Highway
• Peloponesse Road Trip Guide
• Milan Travel Guide
• The Ultimate Venice Guide
• Modern Milanese architecture
• Budva Travel Guide: Montenegro’s main resort
• Montenegro Road Trip Guide
• Transylvania
• Yakutsk Travel Guide
• Journeying Through History: The BAM Railway Experience
• Veliky Ustyug Travel Guide: Meet the Ded Moroz
• Belgrade’s Cultural Guide
• Belgrade Off the Beaten Path
• Road Trip Guide
• Istanbul 🇹🇷: Hand-Painted Signs from a Century Ago
• From Grodno to Brest: a roadtrip
• Bosnia and Herzegovina
• Holy See (Vatican)
• Liechtenstein

Sakhalin: Your Essential Guide to Russia’s Enigmatic Eastern Island

• January 14, 2024

A Journey Through Giant Burdocks, Wild Bears, and the Echoes of Ancient Japanese Temples

From the most dreaded place of exile in the Russian Empire to a Japanese industrial base and one of the most attractive and inaccessible places for domestic tourism in Russia.

Table of Contents

An island that was Russian, then Japanese, and then Russian again

From the 17th to the mid-19th century, it was believed that Sakhalin was a peninsula. This misconception firmly established itself on the maps of the time, as navigators failed to circumnavigate the island. The proximity of Sakhalin’s southern tip to the mainland created a false impression of being impassable for ships. An additional complexity arose from the fact that the route taken by ships from the Russian Empire involved passing through a narrow strait, which Nevelskoy managed to navigate only in 1849.

For a long time, people did not believe Nevelskoy, but he insisted that he had discovered a route through the strait, for which he became something of a hero in Primorye. Monuments and plaques dedicated to him can be found in Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk, Vladivostok, and Khabarovsk. The H4H creative association created a graphic novel based on this story, which won a cultural initiatives contest and became part of the interior of the Khabarovsk Airport. By the way, the Sakhalin region is the only Russian entity entirely located on islands.

The remote and isolated location of the island during the Russian Empire was used as a natural barrier, and it became the site of penal colonies for hard labor prisoners. Its geographical position led to Sakhalin’s hard labor being regarded as particularly cruel.

During the period of the island’s development, Russian ships followed the Amur River and reached the island from the north, where the oldest port, Alexandrovsk, was founded. The Japanese attempted to develop the island from the south, entering through the Kuril Islands (part of the Sakhalin region) and Aniva Bay. For a long time, the Kurils were inhabited by the Ainu, representatives of a small indigenous people. The very word “Kurils” comes from the Ainu: “kuru” means “man.”

In the 17th century, Japan conducted its first expeditions towards the islands and began their development. Russia reached them later. The first mentions of the islands in Russian language date back to the late 17th century. For a long time, Russian, Dutch, Japanese, and Anglo-French navigators studied the islands, landed on them, and disputed their territorial ownership. However, only Russia and Japan managed to establish a foothold. To end the territorial disputes, the governments of the two countries signed an agreement under which the Kuril Islands went to Japan, and Sakhalin to Russia, which continued to develop the island mainly from the north. After the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905, which ended in Russia’s defeat, the southern part of Sakhalin became part of Japan as the Karafuto Prefecture.

Until the second half of the 20th century, the island was owned by Japan and was quite successful in developing its resources. A huge number of mines were opened, several cities and lighthouses were built. In particular, the current regional center, Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk, was the former Japanese city of Toyohara. The famous Aniva lighthouse, now considered a symbol of Sakhalin, was built by Japanese engineers. After Japan’s defeat in World War II, the island passed to the Soviet Union. Contrary to history, the main life of the island moved from the north to the south. Alexandrovsk, which was convenient to reach by water, lost to Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk with its infrastructure built by the Japanese, connections to neighboring cities, and airport. Interestingly, before leaving, the Japanese buried and hid the mining sites, and locals say that not all the old mines have been found yet, and they are sometimes stumbled upon during walks.

Because the island belonged to three different countries in just over a hundred years, it did not have time to develop any significant urban infrastructure. The cities lack outstanding architectural monuments and unique museums. However, some unusual Japanese architecture has remained. Meanwhile, Sakhalin compactly houses incredible natural attractions. Here, one can climb through forests and bamboo thickets to breathtakingly beautiful mountains as if outlined in graphite, and through a mountain pass reach the sea, into which clear mountain rivers flow with fish splashing in them.

The Ainu and Nivkh: Inhabitants of Sakhalin

For a long time, the island was mainly inhabited by the Ainu and Nivkh peoples. These ethnic groups are very different, making their coexistence as unusual as the neighboring of birch and bamboo on the slopes of Sakhalin’s mountains. Both are isolate peoples . However, the Ainu belong to the Australoid race, while the Nivkh are Mongoloids (the main population of Asian territories). It’s fascinating how representatives of different races have coexisted for ages on a small piece of land at the edge of the world.

There is no single version regarding the origin of the Ainu, leading to a multitude of theories — both scientific and conspiratorial. One theory suggests that the Ainu are the ancestors of the indigenous population of Australia, remaining in the north after continental migration. Some researchers write that the Ainu are the forebears of the Japanese. This theory is supported by the fact that before Japanese expansion, the Ainu mainly inhabited the Japanese island of Hokkaido. However, the Ainu suffered greatly from Japanese imperialism, and their culture and language were almost completely destroyed in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Now, there are just over two thousand Ainu living on Sakhalin.

The Nivkh are among the indigenous small-numbered peoples of the north. They suffered less from Japanese rule. However, during the Soviet era, they experienced a difficult phase of literacy development, destruction of tribal communities, and relocation to cities. About 2,200 Nivkh live in the Sakhalin region and another approximately two thousand in Khabarovsk.

During the Karafuto period, Japan brought captured Koreans to Sakhalin for hard labor. By the mid-20th century, the Korean population of the island was about 45,000 people. For comparison, the current population of Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk is 180,000. This large number of people, deprived of their homeland, was forced to adapt to life first under Japanese and then Soviet rule. In the USSR, Koreans were issued passports, and there were national kindergartens and schools. However, Sakhalin Koreans did not feel part of the larger community of Soviet Koreans (Koryo-saram) and struggled to integrate. Moreover, they were considered members of an ‘unreliable nation’ because they had lived in the Japanese Empire.

In the late 1990s, three countries – Russia, South Korea, and Japan – began a repatriation campaign for the first generation of Sakhalin Koreans (born before August 15, 1945) to their historical homeland. Now, about 3,500 repatriates from Russia live in South Korea. Under the program, the Korean government provides medical insurance and a monthly allowance to the repatriates. The Japanese government, in turn, buys housing (apartments up to 40 m²) and covers transportation costs. Additionally, every two years, Sakhalin Koreans who have moved to their homeland have the right to visit Sakhalin for free, funded by the Japanese government. Most Sakhalin Koreans settled in the city of Ansan , where 500 apartments were specially built for them.

Korean influence is weakly traced on Sakhalin: many Sakhalin Koreans no longer know the language and do not associate themselves with Korea. However, there are several authentic restaurants (for example, “Koba” ) on the island where you can try traditional dishes.

Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk — the capital and base for exploring the island

The city is predominantly characterized by typical Soviet architecture, with almost no remaining Japanese buildings. This is because during the Soviet period, the city was radically rebuilt after being liberated from ‘imperialist Japanese rule.’ Many buildings were demolished, and from the few that remained, some were turned into museums. Perhaps the main thing that has been preserved from the Japanese period is the layout. The city was founded from scratch near the Russian village of Vladimirovka, and Chicago was chosen as the model for its layout. Toyohara was divided into four parts by two main streets, O-dori (now Lenin) and Maoka-dori (Sakhalinskaya).

Japan established itself thoroughly on the island. In Toyohara, trade routes converged, new bays were developed, and roads were built. The city’s population grew steadily. Initially due to the military garrison, and later due to a paper mill, a sugar and distillery plant. Now, the buildings of the former Japanese factories are abandoned. Many of them can only be accessed with rare tours, while others are completely closed. However, their presence is still recalled by street names, such as Paper Street.

Another building in the Neo-Japanese style is the Karafuto Governorate Museum built in the 1930s (29 Communist Avenue). It now houses the Sakhalin Regional Museum . And in the former bank of colonial development, there is the Art Museum (137 Lenin Street).

Several other iconic buildings constructed by the Japanese have been preserved: the central hospital of Toyohara (41 Chekhov Street), the conference hall of the Karafuto Governorate (30 Dzerzhinsky Street), and the Toyohara City Hall (41 Communist Avenue). The Sakhalin Railway Museum in Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk is distinct from many similar museums in Russia due to its exhibits. This is because the island long maintained the Japanese standard of railway gauge, which differs from the Russian standard. Accordingly, the rolling stock was entirely different.

If in Vladivostok everything is named after the Far Eastern explorer and writer Vladimir Arsenyev, then in Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk, mentions of Chekhov are everywhere. At the end of the 19th century, Sakhalin was both the most dreaded place for exile to hard labor and one of the most tempting corners of Russia, which was not so easy to access. Chekhov received an editorial assignment and embarked on a ship along with prisoners, military personnel, and sailors to the most remote point of the empire. In his notes, which Chekhov compiled under the title ‘The Island of Sakhalin,’ the writer talked about many things: the geography and climate of the island, the life of the convicts, and ordinary residents. This book caused a great resonance at the time, and even now it was very interesting to read it while traveling to Sakhalin: some things have changed drastically, while others have remained the same. Now in Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk, there is even a museum dedicated to this one book, which turned out to be so significant for the island.

GoSakhalin is the website of the Sakhalin Tourist and Information Center. And in their official Telegram channel , you can find announcements of affordable excursions shortly before they start.

In any case, for travelers, Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk remains primarily a hub and a place of rest. Here they return for the night and dinner, and it seems that real adventures begin outside the doorstep.

Surrounding Area

10–20 kilometers from Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk

The main reason people visit Sakhalin is for its unique nature. Mountains, forests, rivers, lakes, and the sea, all on a small piece of land. In one day, you can travel from the Sea of Okhotsk to the Sea of Japan, cross several climate zones, see bamboo groves, birches, and spruces in one place, spot a running fox and a swimming orca. The island’s landscapes can boldly compete in Instagram appeal with Iceland or Norway.

Within Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk alone, there are about 30 kilometers of marked ecotrails, with brief descriptions and routes available on the official tourism portal. I also found an ecotrail in Nevelsk, which is not mentioned on the official website.

The ecotrails in Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk start from the ‘Mountain Air’ ski center on the sopka (a term for mountains in the Far East) Bolshevik. There are five in total: ‘Children’s’ (2.7 kilometers), ‘Eight’ (8 kilometers), ‘Northern Ring’ (9 kilometers), ‘Russian’ (3.2 kilometers), and ‘Yelanka’ (5 kilometers). You can take a cable car to the start of the trails and then slowly descend through the forest and park to the city. However, the lift does not operate in rainy and windy weather.

Hiking the ‘Eight’ trail took me no more than three hours, including stops to catch my breath and take photos. Every kilometer and a half along the route, there are benches. From the top of the mountain, there is a view of Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk, and it seems you can see a piece of the Sea of Okhotsk.

Chekhov Peak

The route to Chekhov Peak is a high-mountain trekking path that requires a certain level of physical fitness. Chekhov Peak has an elevation of 1045 meters, with an absolute altitude gain of 752 meters. The trail is narrow and slippery in places, hardly suitable for children or people with limited mobility.

Chekhov Peak is part of the Susunai Range, which supports Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk from the southeast. You can exit from Gagarin city park to the foothills in about half an hour. The ascent to the peak itself cannot be missed: a marked trail and informational signs lead to it. On particularly steep ascents, ropes are hung for safety, but it is possible to walk up the slope without them.

In late spring, the forest trail has many streams, as well as May primroses and butterflies. The foothills are scattered with rare, incredibly large, and wonderfully fragrant marsh callas. Halfway to the peak, bamboo thickets are encountered, through which birches break through. This is also a kind of magic because, as a biologist friend explained to me, birch and bamboo are not supposed to coexist in the natural environment, but somehow they manage to do so. Occasionally, spruces are encountered — not tall, but very fluffy. Closer to the top, the vegetation becomes sparser, and the impressive views of the sea, mountains, and lakes open up from the height.

• The entire hike takes five to six hours.
• Even in summer, there is snow on the summit. In the afternoon, it starts to melt, making it more difficult to walk.
• Don’t forget to bring food and water.
• Wear boots with covered ankles, a jacket, and a head covering.
• Inform your family and friends, and someone living in Sakhalin, before setting out on the route. If you’re traveling alone, you could notify, for example, the hotel receptionist or roommates in a hostel.
• Snakes and bears are found around the trail. Watch your feet and try to make as much noise as possible. For example, play music on your phone and sing along occasionally.
• The ascent to Chekhov Peak can be the start of a journey to the village of Lesnoye on the shore of the Sea of Okhotsk. The distance to the village is 27 kilometers. With good preparation and an early start from Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk, this distance can be covered in one day.

Mud Volcano in Klyuchi

A mud volcano is an eruption on the earth’s surface of clay masses, mineralized waters, and gases. The mechanism of formation of these volcanoes is not fully understood. According to the existing theory, such volcanoes are formed near oil fields.

The mud volcano in Klyuchi consists of a mud field about 200 meters in diameter. There, you can see about 20 points of activity, resembling miniature volcano craters. This mud volcano became active in 1959, 1979, 2001, and 2011 (the last time due to a strong earthquake in Japan). During these eruptions, mud columns reached several tens of meters in height. Bus 189 goes to Klyuchi from Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk. The distance from the village to the top of the volcano is nine kilometers and takes about two and a half hours to walk.

Ecopark in the Vestochka area: Frog Rock, Aikhor Waterfall, ‘Sunny Glade’ Recreation Park

Not far from Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk, there is a fairly large ecopark, known primarily for the Frog Rock outcrop. An outcrop is a remnant of harder rock around which softer rock has eroded over time. Outcrops are often known for their unusual shapes and are natural monuments. Frog Rock is part of a series of rocks standing one behind the other. This was once the seabed of an ancient sea, and fossilized shells can be found in its vicinity. From the top of the rock, amazing views of the Aniva Bay, Tunaycha and Changeable Lakes open up. This place was sacred to the Ainu, the indigenous inhabitants of the island.

The trail to the ‘Sunny Glade’ ecopark begins behind the ‘Electron’ culture house. Despite its name, it is not a city park, but a full-fledged forest with laid-out paths. There are houses, glades with tables for rest where you can cook barbecues, and wooden walkways leading to various attractions. These are all paid services.

The path to Frog Rock outcrop goes along the Komissarovka River. In areas of spring flooding, callas bloom and bamboo grows. The outcrop is located on a hill, with a total elevation gain of about 300 meters. The road is quite challenging, usually taking from an hour to an hour and a half. The higher you climb, the more you can see: the sea, the mountain gorge, the road to Vestochka. In the same park is the Aikhor Waterfall, which is also a short climb away, but along a less well-maintained trail. You can plan a whole day to visit Vestochka and even spend the night, without returning to Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk.

Vestochka is three high-rise buildings on one side of the road and a cottage settlement on the other. It is part of Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk, though located 15 kilometers from the main part of the city. A taxi there costs about 1000 rubles and takes 40 minutes. About a kilometer after turning off the main road, the asphalt ends and a terribly dusty dirt road begins. If you’re lucky, you can catch a bus that runs three times a day.

What else to see on the island

40 kilometers from Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk

The oldest city in the south of Sakhalin, founded by Nevelskoy’s expedition. Here you can find a huge number of monuments dedicated to sailors, naval battles, and ships. The most significant monument in the city in recent decades has become the stele dedicated to ‘Koreans interned by the Japanese in Sakhalin, who never returned to their homeland,’ located on Mount Sorrow, created through the efforts of three countries’ governments (Russia, Japan, and Korea).

In Korsakov, some Japanese heritage has been preserved: the former building of the Hokkaido Takushoku Bank, a colonial development bank (Sovetskaya Street, 3), trade warehouses in the port, a document storage facility ‘Bunsyoko’ (Krasnoflotskaya Street, 1), a couple of rusty fire hydrants, and remnants of Shinto temples in the form of pillars with hieroglyphs. One of the local nighttime entertainments is watching the lights of the gas processing plant.

How to get there. Three electric trains a day, the journey takes just over an hour, and the ticket costs 75 rubles (0.75 euros).

Bird and Giant Capes

90 kilometers from Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk

Two capes, recognized as natural monuments in 1990, along whose coasts are many wind and wave-carved grottoes, caves, arches, and columns of various sizes and whimsical shapes, among which colonies of sea birds reside.

The place is not very close, but it’s very picturesque at any time of the year. In the area of one of the rocks, there is a pool where, during the salmon spawning period, you can observe a fascinating spectacle — a huge gathering of pink salmon.

Many tourists stay on the coast overnight to witness the sunset and sunrise. Near Cape Giant, there is a toilet, parking, and a rest area with benches.

How to get there. The journey from Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk goes through the village of Okhotskoe, where you can buy fresh crabs, and takes about three hours one way. The road is fully passable only by high vehicles like Mitsubishi Pajero, Suzuki Jimny, as the last ten kilometers of the route have deep puddles, potholes, small cliffs, and rivers.

Nevelsk and Steller Sea Lions

Nevelsk is nestled between mountains and sea. The rocky mountains and the coast, which consists of small stone needles and shells, in every way explain why Chekhov so often mentioned in ‘The Island of Sakhalin’ how harsh the land of Sakhalin is.

Steller sea lions are the largest of the eared seals. One of their habitats is the breakwater in Nevelsk. As soon as you arrive in the town, the smell from the Steller sea lions’ haul-out site hits you. ‘They eat there, live, give birth to their young – that’s why it smells,’ the locals explain. Another feature is the noise. Steller sea lions are very loud!

You can view the sea lions from the central square, where binoculars are installed. However, tourists usually hire a boat and approach the haul-out site to get a closer look at the seals. You can see how the Steller sea lions bark, lie in the sun, jump into the sea and, most interestingly, try to jump back. The views from the square through binoculars are not as detailed and impressive. A place on the boat will cost 1000–1500 rubles (10.05 – (15.07 euros). You can also buy a tour from Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk for 3500 rubles (35.16 euros). The most animals are present in spring and early summer. In autumn, there may be a couple of dozen individuals left.

From the embankment, you can observe the huge kelp laminaria floating in the sea. Some travelers catch them themselves and eat them. Although dishes made from seaweed are found in cafes and also sold in stores. Signs are installed on the shore indicating where to run in case of a tsunami. The last major earthquake with waves was recorded in 2007. Many houses were destroyed and two people died. The most famous Sakhalin tsunami was the 1952 tragedy , when the aftermath of the earthquake almost completely destroyed Severo-Kurilsk.

How to get there. From the bus station (Karl Marx Street, 51b) in Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk, buses go to Nevelsk, the ticket costs 300 rubles (3.01 euros), and the journey takes about an hour. Tickets can be purchased at the bus station ticket office or from the driver (cash or transfer). It’s not possible to board the bus somewhere in the city, as the bus does not make stops. It’s better to buy a return ticket immediately upon arrival in Nevelsk at the Nevelsk bus station ticket office (Lenina Street, 1). The bus is popular with locals, and there may simply be no seats left.

Remnants of structures from the Karafuto period include the Maoka-Jinja temple with a Japanese-style garden and an abandoned railway built by the Japanese. It used to connect Kholmsk with Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk. Tourists usually come to see two photogenic bridges – Devil’s and Witch’s – and a tunnel in the mountain that makes a full circle inside it. The trail passes along the old rails, and there are many vipers, so one needs to watch their step.

How to get there. The bus to Kholmsk takes two hours, the ticket costs 450 rubles (4.52 euros), with 14 trips a day.

Slepikovsky Cape and Lighthouse

120 kilometers from Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk

At Slepikovsky Cape, there is the only relic grove of Korean cedar on Sakhalin. Also located here is the functioning Slepikovsky Lighthouse, which is a 27-meter tall round tower, connected by corridors to utility and residential buildings.

The cape and lighthouse are named after the commander of the Russian partisan detachment Bronislav Grotto-Slepikovsky, who operated in Southern Sakhalin during the 1904–1905 war. The route to the lighthouse goes through the villages of Yablochnoe and Sadovniki, where some of the best beaches on Sakhalin are located — with the cleanest water and white sand.

How to get there. The cape is located 29 kilometers north of Kholmsk. From Kholmsk to the turn towards the lighthouse, there is asphalt with dirt sections. From the turn to the lighthouse, there is first a dirt road, then beach sand, which is recommended to be driven on with deflated tires. Visiting time is from spring to autumn, as the road to the cape is not cleared in winter.

110 kilometers from Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk

In 1891, when the island had a penal colony, this was the Russian village of Siraroko, named after a nearby Ainu settlement. In 1905, the south of Sakhalin was given to the Japanese, and the village was renamed Higashi Shiraura. Here there were a railway station, a brick factory, and a coal mine. 40 years later, the settlement was renamed Vzmorye.

During the Japanese times, there was the Shinto shrine Higashi Shiraura Inari-Jinja. Only the torii gates remain — P-shaped gates without doors that are placed on the path to a Shinto shrine. These are the only torii on Sakhalin. On the torii, there is an inscription ‘In honor of the 2600th anniversary of the foundation of Great Japan’ — this mythological date was widely celebrated in 1940.

On the way to the torii, you can see the famous giant burdocks and bear’s garlic. Vzmorye is also known as a place where poached crabs are sold along the highway.

How to get there. Two electric trains and one train that start from Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk stop in Vzmorye. Unfortunately, all three are in the evening. You can also get there on passing buses that go to the north of the island.

Tikhaya Bay

140 kilometers from Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk

On one side, the bay is framed by Mount Smely, and on the other side, the majestic Zhdanko Ridge begins. To the left in the bay itself is an island-kekur, which can be reached during low tide, as well as the epic cliffs of Tikhaya Cape. By the way, behind this cape, there are waterfalls that become icefalls in winter. At the base of the bay is the mouth of the Tikhaya River, where during the season you can see the spawning of pink salmon and chum salmon. Bears are aware of this, so they are often encountered here.

How to get there. Buses going to Poronaysk stop in the village of Tikhoye, near which the bay is located. There are four trips a day.

Aniva Lighthouse

The lighthouse has a complex history: there were attempts to maintain it under Soviet rule, but Aniva was so remote from inhabited areas that it was not profitable. Eventually, the lighthouse was switched to autonomous mode, bringing in a radioactive isotope to sustain its operation, and then it was completely closed. To this day, you can find signs on the walls reading ‘Caution, radioactive’. But now this warning is outdated, as the radioactive isotope was removed when the lighthouse was decommissioned. The lighthouse is very beautiful, offering views of the island and sea, and inside you can explore the remnants of rooms and working areas.

On the return trip, tourists are also taken to Mramornaya Bay, where you can also climb a mountain and view the jagged coast of Sakhalin from above. Orcas and whales are often encountered in these areas, most frequently in summer. I would also recommend taking a combined tour in summer to Aniva Lighthouse, the Blue Lakes, and Busse Lagoon, where you can see the amazingly blue waters and try sea urchins.

A kilometer from Novikov is Cape Tri Kamnya (46.320342 143.373006), which can even be reached by car. Four kilometers from the cape is the small Strelka waterfall , which requires a walk. If you stay in the village overnight, you can take a hike to the Blue (turquoise) Lakes (46.359603, 143.471909). On the way, there’s an abandoned Japanese power station. You can extend your route by another 15 kilometers and reach the opposite shore of the peninsula – to Cape Evstafiya. The road from Novikov to Cape Evstafyeva through the Blue Lakes can be driven in a jeep, if there hasn’t been prolonged rain before. But it’s better to ask in advance those who have recently been there, and get the phone number of a local tractor driver in Novikov, so that if something happens, he can pull you out.

How to get there. Getting there independently is almost impossible. The lighthouse is located on a rocky outcrop in the sea, and the nearest land is a high cliff. However, some people do reach Novikovo (the nearest village) by bus or car, and then walk 44 kilometers on foot to Aniva (the name of both the lighthouse and the bay). It takes about one and a half hours to drive from Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk to Novikovo. And then another two hours of rough dirt road to the boat dock. A tour from the company ‘Friends-Hikers’ costs 6000 rubles (60.28 euros) in May (in summer – 7000 rubles (70.33 euros)).

Klokovsky Waterfall

190 kilometers from Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk

Klokovsky Waterfall is one of the highest waterfalls on Sakhalin Island. Its height is variously reported to be 48–49 meters, with a width of up to nine meters. The waterfall is accessible year-round, but is most full in late spring and early summer.

Alexandrovsk-Sakhalinsky

The ‘Tri Brata’ (Three Brothers) rocks are definitely a symbol of Alexandrovsk-Sakhalinsky, and perhaps of the entire island. They are located in the Alexandrovsk Gulf almost opposite Cape Zhonkiyor. From the cape, there is a stunning view of the vast Tatar Strait and the Three Brothers. At low tide, it’s possible to calmly explore all the attractions of the gulf, collect seaweed and shells, see hermit crabs scuttling along the seabed with their shells on their backs, or watch the leaves of laminaria sway. At the strongest low tide, you can even walk to the Three Brothers through the water.

In the 19th century, convicts carved a 90-meter tunnel through Cape Zhonkiyor to service the lighthouse. To reach the tunnel by land, you need to come at low tide. Otherwise, you’ll have to climb the rocks. The tunnel is lined with logs, but there is almost always water at the bottom and a strong wind howls through it. If you pass through the tunnel, you will see the ‘Tri Sestry’ (Three Sisters) rocks and an old lighthouse from the end of the 19th century. All these places are described by Chekhov in ‘The Island of Sakhalin’: ‘Most often we went to the lighthouse, which stands high above the valley, on Cape Zhonkiyor. During the day, the lighthouse, if looked at from below, is a modest white house with a mast and lantern, but at night it shines brightly in the darkness, and then it seems that the penal colony looks at the world with its red eye. The road to the house climbs steeply, winding around the mountain, past old larches and firs. The higher you climb, the freer you breathe; the sea spreads before your eyes, thoughts gradually come, having nothing to do with the prison, the penal colony, or the exile settlement, and only then do you realize how dull and difficult life is down below.’

How to get there. From Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk, there is one bus trip per day – at 12:10. The ticket costs 2200 rubles (22.10 euros), and the journey takes nine hours.

600 kilometers from Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk

The main transit point on the way to the oil refineries. The village might be of interest to those curious to see a harsh northern town living off production: low-rise buildings made of siding and unexpectedly bright murals on the walls of five-story buildings. There is a local history museum in the village (Sovetskaya Street, 3) – it is praised for its excellent exhibition of the Nivkh culture and a monument to Nevelskoy. Also, one of the longest rivers of Sakhalin, the Tym (which translates from Nivkh as ‘spawning river’), flows through the town.

How to get there. A night train goes to Nogliki every day, taking almost 12 hours. The cheapest ticket in a seated carriage costs 1100 rubles (11.05 euros), a compartment – 4100 (41.19 euros). There is even a luxury (SV) carriage for 12600 rubles (126.59 euros).

Where to Stay

Hostels in the Far East are divided into work and tourist types. The former will also accommodate tourists, but the atmosphere there is like a dormitory where their own rules are already established, and you may feel like an uninvited guest. To avoid such a hostel, it’s important to carefully read the reviews, not book the cheapest hostels, not stay on the outskirts or near airports and train stations.

In the Islander hostel , mainly travelers stay, it’s very cozy, with convenient kitchen and showers with toilets. A double room costs 3000 rubles per day, and dorms – from 900 rubles (9.04 euros) per night. If you book directly through the website and for a long term, you can get a good discount.

The ‘Moneron’ hotel is located near the railway and bus stations. It’s a classic budget hotel with small clean rooms. The ‘comfort’ class rooms have a bath, and the hotel provides a complete set with slippers, towels, and a hairdryer. Prices start from 2800 rubles (28.13 euros) per night for a single economy room, while ‘comfort’ costs 4900 rubles (49.23 euros). Breakfast is included in the price.

The ‘Belka’ hotel building is made using Finnish technology in a wooden style from milled timber. The cost of large rooms with wooden walls and huge beds starts from 5800 rubles (58.27 euros). Breakfast is also included in the price. The hotel complex includes a sauna, spa, tavern, and gym.

Near Bussé Bay is the island’s only dome-shaped glamping site. A night for two costs 8000-10,000 rubles (80.37 – 100.47 euros). An extra bed is 2000 (20.09 euros). Each dome has a shower, toilet, and electricity. On cooler days, you can light the stove and sit by the fire with a cup of hot cocoa.

In other towns, apart from Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk, the choice of hotels is quite modest and usually limited to one or two hotels, which cannot always be booked online. They have to be found on the map and booked by phone.

Transport on the Island

Car. If you’re only traveling between cities, there won’t be any problems – the roads between them are mostly paved, and the dirt roads are of more or less good quality. It gets more complicated with natural attractions. Almost all of them are accessed by dirt roads, which not every car can navigate.

In Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk, ‘Yandex.Taxi’ and ‘Maxim’ operate (also in Korsakov and Kholmsk). A trip within the city limits will cost a maximum of 300 rubles (3.01 euros).

Railway. From Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk, about 30 electric trains depart daily. Most of them go to nearby areas like Dalnyaya, Khristoforovka, and Novoaleksandrovka stations – 8–23 minutes travel time.

To other cities, there’s only one electric train per day. It takes an hour to Korsakov and the ticket costs 80 rubles (0.80 euro). To Tomari, it’s four hours and 300 rubles (3.01 euros). To Poronaysk, it’s five hours of travel and 500 rubles (5.02 euros) for a ticket. Long-distance electric trains depart in the evening, as these routes are used by residents of the province who return from work in Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk to their homes.

There is also one train on the island – Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk to Nogliki, 12 hours of travel and 1100 rubles (11.05 euros) for a ticket in a sitting carriage.

Buses. It seems you can reach even the most remote settlements by bus. Often there’s only one trip per day, but at least it exists. To Kholmsk, Nevelsk, and Korsakov, the journey takes about an hour and a half, with tickets costing around 300 rubles (3.01 euros); to Poronaysk and Uglegorsk, it’s four to five hours and 1200 rubles (12.06 euros) for a ticket. You can check the current schedule on avtovokzaly.ru . But it’s always better to double-check by phone: +7 (4242) 72-25-53. The address of the bus station is Karl Marx Street, 51b.

Airplane. Sakhalin has a quite extensive network of airports, and you can fly from Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk to Okha, Zonalnoye, Shakhtyorsk, Poronaysk, Smirnykh, Yuzhno-Kurilsk, and Iturup. Flights are operated by the Far Eastern airlines ‘Aurora’ and ‘Taiga’ . These routes are served by small propeller planes Bombardier and Mi-8 helicopters. Such a flight is an interesting experience in itself. Moreover, some flights are quite inexpensive. For example, to Zonalnoye, Shakhtyorsk, and Poronaysk, tickets cost 2000–3000 rubles (20.09 – 30.14 euros) one way. To Okha and the Kurils – from 6000 rubles (60.28 euros).

Ferry. From Korsakov, ferries run to different settlements in the Kurils every three to four days. The ferry to Kurilsk takes about 22 hours, to Yuzhno-Kurilsk – 22–30 hours, and to Malokurilskoye – about 40 hours. Interestingly, a ticket to any of these settlements costs from 2800 rubles (28.13 euros), available on the website of the ferry company.

How to get there

By plain. To travel to Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk from Europe, passengers typically fly through major transit hubs. Common routes involve flying from a European city to one of the major Russian airports offering direct flights to Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk, such as Moscow’s Sheremetyevo or Domodedovo airports. In 2023 it is only possible to fly to Moscow from major transit hubs such as Istanbul or Erevan. From there, travelers can catch one of the direct flights to the island. Some routes might also include stops or transfers in other large cities in Russia or Asia, depending on the airline and the flight itinerary, for instance, Novosibirsk, Krasnoyarsk, Irkutsk, Ulan-Ude, Chita, Blagoveshchensk, Vladivostok, Khabarovsk, Komsomolsk-on-Amur, Sovetskaya Gavan, and Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky. There is even one international flight from Harbin, China.

In good weather, on approach to Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk, you can see the Tatar Strait, the Western Ridge, and the city itself. The airport is located within the city limits, and from there, you can easily reach any point by public transport (buses 63 and 3) or taxi.

Ferry. Vanino (Khabarovsk Krai) to Kholmsk (Sakhalin) . Passenger tickets for the ferry are sold at the Vanino railway station or at the ticket office in Kholmsk (Lenin Square, 5). They can also be reserved by phone: +7 (42137) 74088 (Vanino), +7 (42433) 50880 (Kholmsk). The ferries run daily, with a journey time of 18–20 hours. A seat costs 650 rubles (6.53 euros), while the cheapest cabin spot is 1400 rubles (14.07 euros). There is a dining room on board.

I was on the island in early May, and this has its pros and cons. On one hand, it’s already not very cold in Sakhalin at this time, and you can walk around in a light jacket or sweatshirt, and sometimes even just in a T-shirt. At the end of spring, you can catch the largest number of Steller sea lions in Nevelsk (closer to summer they migrate towards Avacha Bay). Also at this time, you can see the forest awakening: streams penetrate it from all sides, in their floodplains swamp callas bloom, meadows fill with primroses, and the hills are covered with bright green bamboo shoots. On the other hand, there is still snow in the mountains, in which you can get stuck while climbing, and the sea, which is not very warm in these areas, is completely unsuitable for swimming.

In summer, Sakhalin is not very hot, the coast blooms with wild roses, the sea warms up a bit, and there is less chance of bad weather when visiting remote attractions. Also, it’s precisely at this time you can see orcas (June – July) and whales (July – August), as well as the salmon spawning.

In winter, snowboarders and skiers come to Sakhalin. The mountains on the island are not high, so they are suitable even for beginners.

Related posts:

• The Vertical Grain Elevator (Silo) in Samara — A Benchmark of Brutalist Architecture
• Kamchatka: “Island” of Volcanoes, Bears, and Red Caviar
• Yekaterinburg: A Comprehensive Guide to the Ever-Young and Protest-Ridden City
• Altai Republic (Russia) Travel Guide: A Journey through Twisting Mountain Roads

Leave a Reply Cancel reply

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment.

Speaker of Lesotho's National Assembly: Chinese modernization providing reference for African countries' development

During a recent interview, Tlohang Sekhamane, speaker of the National Assembly of Lesotho, praised China's path to modernization, and suggested that it provides valuable inspiration for the development of African countries.

Sekhamane pointed out that Chines modernization has strong leadership. The leader's long-term strategic vision and effective execution have helped China make correct decisions and cope with complex challenges in the process of modernization. African countries can emulate and learn from this.

Sekhamane believed that although China is a developing country, as the world's second-largest economy, it welcomes African countries to learn from its modernization experience.By extending assistance and goodwill, China fosters a strong sense of comfort among African countries.

Video Editor: Ji Yunfan (intern)

Visitors experience rich culture and history of Ningxia in Ningxia Museum

Herd of wild horses seen at Sultan Reedy National Park in Türkiye

Skyline of Beijing's CBD at dusk

Schools across China host activities to mark start of new semester

The beauty of Baersi Snow Mountain in Zhangye

请使用浏览器分享功能进行分享

About Us 　　 Contact Us　

Copyright by Guangming Daily. All rights reserved.