travel vision definition

Travel vision: "collicular visual system"?

Affiliation.

• 1 Department of Paediatrics, University of British Columbia, Children's Hospital, Vancouver.
• PMID: 3508710
• DOI: 10.1016/0887-8994(86)90079-2

Two visually impaired children with occipital infarctions are presented. One patient has profound impairment of his primary visual pathway but has good vision for traveling, while the other child presented with the symptoms in reverse. We believe that these two patients provide further evidence that the primary visual pathway is used for conscious visual analysis and that the collicular visual system serves as the subconscious visual guidance for locomotion.

Publication types

• Case Reports
• Attention / physiology
• Blindness / physiopathology*
• Cerebral Infarction / physiopathology*
• Motion Perception / physiology
• Superior Colliculi / physiopathology*
• Visual Cortex / physiopathology*
• Visual Pathways / physiopathology
• Visual Perception / physiology

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Resources for Travelers With a Vision Impairment

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Table of Contents

Travel planning guides for the visually impaired, travel tips for the visually impaired, understanding your rights as a traveler with a vision impairment, specialist organizations for the visually impaired who want to travel, additional resources.

If you or a loved one has a vision impairment, traveling anywhere can seem like a daunting prospect…but it doesn’t have to be! With the correct planning, precautions, and awareness, you can make sure your next trip is enjoyable and successful.

Below you’ll find a wide range of resources offering detailed advice for visually impaired travelers and their companions. These include travel tips that will help you get from A to B, learn about rights for disabled travelers, and plan your journey using informative websites.

Traveling can be stressful at any time, but it can be even more overwhelming if you or your travel companion are dealing with a visual impairment. Below you’ll find some useful resources that will help you plan your trip ahead of time so it runs as smoothly as possible:

VisionAware.org – This article has been produced by a lifelong traveler who suffers from Retinitis Pigmentosa (RP). She discusses how to plan your trip, how to ask for advice, and where to look for discounts.

AFB.org – Produced by the American Foundation for the Blind, this guide offers travel ideas and tips for the blind or visually impaired. It includes handy pointers, such as what to look for in your hotel, how to put together a travel itinerary, and the benefits of using a white cane.

Henshaws.org.uk – In this article you’ll find helpful tips and tricks for planning your journey. There are also useful links and contacts for UK travelers who are blind or visually impaired.

VisionAware.org – This is another great article on the VisionAware website offering must-have advice on packing for your trip. Helpful tips include how to identify your luggage, selecting travel clothes, and packing for your dog.

Below are some handy guides that offer great advice to help visually impaired travelers and their companions get around safely and smoothly. Topics covered here include traveling abroad, traveling around a city, and traveling by bus or rail:

SATH.org – Produced by the Society for Accessible Travel & Hospitality, this guide offers in-depth advice for the blind or visually impaired. It covers a variety of topics including traveling by air, rail, or bus.

Travel.state.gov – Produced by the U.S. Department of State, this article offers advice on what you need to do before you travel, how to travel with service animals, and what medical considerations you need to make. You can also find information on the destination you’re traveling to and what they have in place for impaired travelers.

AFB.org – Aimed at professionals who are traveling with blindness or a vision impairment, this blog offers some helpful tips, especially for those navigating a city on business.

SocietyfortheBlind.org – Co-written by a board member for the Society for the Blind and one of their orientation and mobility instructors, this article offers a number of tips if you’re traveling with a vision impairment.

MIUSA.org – Within this article, you’ll find preparation advice and tips on going abroad as a person who’s blind or has low vision. This includes what you’ll need to take and how to prepare for your travels. You can also read stories from other members, including Kevin’s/a> first-hand experience of Australia.

CVIGA.org – Here, the Center for the Visually Impaired provides a handy blog on how to travel with a vision impairment in winter. It offers practical advice on what to wear and how to stay safe in the colder months.

IndependentTraveler.com – A thorough guide on disabled travel, including 15 travel tips that cover items such as transport to and from the airport and using specialist travel agents.

CDC.org – The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention has put together a useful guide on traveling with disabilities such as a vision impairment. It includes some pointers on pre-travel consultations, air travel, and cruise ships.

RNIB.org – Targeted at a UK audience, this guide covers a range of topics including traveling abroad and getting around your local area. It also includes stories from different people who share their experiences of travel.

Gov.uk – Another resource for UK residents, this guide on foreign travel for disabled people covers a variety of topics, including health, medication, and how to review transport facilities. It also includes some helpful links about UK-based organizations that exist to assist you with travel arrangements.

It’s important to know what rights you or your companions have as blind or visually impaired travelers. Below you’ll find some practical guides that cover all of the legalities involved, including the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) and what your rights are when traveling abroad:

VisionAware.org – Within this resource, you’ll find a breakdown of what’s involved in the ADA. There’s also a section on the ADA and transportation, which includes some examples of how your local transport system should be made accessible to you.

AFB.org – If you’re the parent of a child who’s blind or visually impaired, this guide by the American Foundation for the Blind provides detailed information on what your rights are, including orientation and mobility services.

FriendshipCircle.org – This article details your rights as an air traveler if you have a disability such as vision impairment. It also includes some handy tips for navigating the airport and airplane, as well as ways you can enforce your rights.

Here, you can discover some of the organizations that specialize in helping the visually impaired travel around the world:

SATH.org – The Society for Accessible Travel & Hospitality was founded in 1976, and it helps expand opportunities for disabled travelers in the U.S. and abroad. On the website you’ll find a calendar of events, travel tips, need to know facts, and more.

AbroadWithDisabilities.org – Founded by Juanita Lillie (who suffers from a visual impairment), this organization has been set up to help promote the opportunities available for disabled travelers. Read inspiring stories and learn more about their travel recommendations.

BlindCamps.org – This nonprofit organization offers free camping services to the blind with locations all over Canada and the United States. These camps are affiliated with Christian Record Services Inc.

EuroBlind.org – Here you’ll find a number of useful contacts when planning a trip to Europe. Created by the EBU, this resource includes a number of hotels, companies, and travel agents that specialize in European travel for the visually impaired.

For further information and advice on traveling with a vision impairment, see the resources below:

American Council of the Blind – This website offers information for the blind and visually impaired, including a number of useful travel resources.

AFB.org – Produced by the American Foundation for the Blind, this resource page includes valuable information about traveling by public transport and airlines. It includes links to manuals, complaint forms, and contact information for the relevant organizations.

MIUSA.org – Mobility International USA has a wide range of resources available and offers great tips for planning your travel abroad. There’s also a section for those who are visiting the U.S.

Access-Able.com – On this website, you’ll find a whole host of resources that can help you plan your trip. These include guides on world destinations, links to further reading, and recommended travel agents.

DisabledTravelers.com – This resource is dedicated to information about accessible travel, providing detailed advice on adventure travel, travel companions, and much more.

AccessibleTourism.org – This website is run by the European Network for Accessible Tourism. Here, you’ll find information on European cities and how they welcome all types of travelers. You can also discover which cities have been awarded the European Access City Award .

Frequently Asked Questions

Are there travel planning guides for those who are visually impaired.

Absolutely! Travelers who are visually impaired can utilize resources like

• isionAware.org
• Henshaws.org.uk
• VisionAware.org

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What Is Peripheral Vision?

When to see a healthcare provider, frequently asked questions.

Peripheral vision is our ability to see out of the corner of our eyes. This means that we're able to see things outside of our direct line of vision without having to turn our heads: a skill that comes in handy throughout our waking hours, even when we don't realize it.

When there's a problem with our peripheral vision, it means that it takes more effort to see what's around us; this may result in tripping, falling, or other accidents.

 webphotographeer / Getty Images

Understanding Peripheral Vision

There are two main types of vision that we use every day, usually without thinking about it. These include:

• Central vision : This allows us to see what's going on directly in front of us, and typically, in clear detail (as long as we're wearing corrective lenses if we need them)
• Peripheral vision: This is what we can see out of the corners of our eyes, without having to turn our head or neck.

Peripheral vision allows us to get a much more complete view of our surroundings. In fact, if you've ever heard someone described as "having blinders on," that's a reference to the blinders worn by horses. These flaps attached to a horse's bridle block their peripheral vision, only allowing them to see what's directly in front of them, but nothing on the sides of their path.

Of course, when the term is used in relation to a person, it's figurative; meaning that they have a limited view on something and ignoring (either deliberately or unconsciously) other perspectives around them. So when we're talking about our literal peripheral vision, it's referring to being able to see what's going on out of our direct line of vision.

Causes of Peripheral Vision Loss

When someone experiences a loss of their peripheral vision , it is sometimes referred to as "tunnel vision." To get a better idea of what is going on in an eye with peripheral vision loss, we must look to the two types of cells in the retina that respond to light:

• Cones: Most of the cones are located in the center of the retina (also known as the macula) and allow us to see details and colors.
• Rods: These are in charge of our peripheral and night vision, and are located throughout the rest of the retina.

So when someone has an eye condition that impacts the rods' function, that could lead to the loss of their peripheral vision—even if their cones are still fully operational.  

Signs of Peripheral Vision Loss

Loss of peripheral vision can happen gradually—to the point where a person doesn't notice the onset—or suddenly, in which case it can be alarming and scary. Though in some cases (especially when the vision loss is gradual), people may not notice any signs that they're living with a limited view. But in other cases, there are a variety of signs that are hard to miss, including:  

• Having trouble walking in the dark
• Difficulty driving
• Reading much slower than usual
• Shimmers of light followed by tunnel vision lasting 10 to 20 minutes  

Conditions That May Result in Peripheral Vision Loss

Unless it is the result of an injury, the loss of a person's peripheral vision is typically a symptom of an eye condition. These can range from something minor and temporary, to more serious conditions, including:

• Vitreous floater
• Ocular migraine
• Optic Neuritis
• Retinitis pigmentosa
• Retinal detachment 
• Pituitary tumor
• Carotid artery disease
• Cytomegalovirus retinitis
• Diabetic eye disease
• Diabetic retinopathy
• Idiopathic intracranial hypertension
• Ischemic optic neuropathy
• Pigment dispersion syndrome
• Retinal artery occlusion
• Stickler Syndrome
• Brain aneurysm

How to Test Peripheral Vision

A person's peripheral vision is tested during the visual field test component of a comprehensive eye exam with their optometrist or ophthalmologist.

"Visual field" refers to the width of the area a person can see while focusing on a central point, so testing it gives the healthcare provider a better idea of a patient's peripheral vision capabilities. It's one of the many reasons why it's so important to get regular eye exams. When the healthcare provider has your visual field baseline, they can compare future tests to it in order to see if your vision has gotten worse over time.

The most common way to test someone's peripheral vision is with a confrontation visual field test. During this part of the exam, the patient will be asked to look directly at an object in front of them—like the healthcare provider's nose or their headgear—while one eye is covered. While continuing to stare straight ahead, the healthcare provider will hold up different numbers of fingers (or something similar) in the patient's peripheral vision and ask them what they're able to see. This will help the healthcare provider assess the quality of their peripheral vision and if it's lower than expected, it could be a signal that further testing might be needed.

At-Home Peripheral Vision Test

Although it is not a replacement for a healthcare provider's visit and comprehensive eye exam, it is possible to take a peripheral vision test online. More specifically, it's a test for macular degeneration called the Amsler grid test . While it's recommended that people at risk for macular degeneration take the test daily, those who simply want to get a better idea of their peripheral vision capabilities can take it as needed.

If you lose your peripheral vision temporarily—as a result of a floater or ocular migraine , for example—and this is something that you've previously discussed with your healthcare provider, follow any instructions they gave you then. In any other situation, if you've lost your peripheral vision, it's important to see a healthcare provider as soon as possible, as it could be the symptom of a serious underlying condition.

When Is Peripheral Vision Loss an Emergency?

When a person's loss of peripheral vision happens slowly over time—in which case, they may not even notice—it's something to bring up with their healthcare provider at their next exam.

But in cases when the peripheral vision loss is sudden, it's time to seek emergency treatment, as it could be the sign of a serious condition like a stroke or brain aneurysm.

Coping With Peripheral Vision Loss

When someone loses their peripheral vision, the primary way to cope is by making adjustments in:

• Surroundings

If a loved one loses their peripheral vision, it may be tempting to try to do everything for them to make their life easier. But in reality, you're making it more difficult for them to establish their independence and get used to taking care of themselves.

The person who has lost their peripheral vision has to get used to having to turn their head to see things they could previously do without the extra effort.

It's helpful for the person to go through their own house and do what they can to make sure their pathways are clear, and there aren't any other obstacles in their way.  

Glasses for Peripheral Vision Loss

Even if the frames and lenses of a pair of glasses are quite large, there are almost always small pockets of uncorrected vision when looking out of the corner of your eye—simply because the lens doesn't fully cover your eyeball. While many people get used to that, and function perfectly normally with glasses, others decide to get contact lenses instead, which come with much better results when it comes to peripheral vision.

Of course, the decision of how to correct your vision comes down to more than peripheral vision, but it's something to keep in mind and discuss with your eye healthcare provider.

A Word From Verywell

Having any sort of problem with your eyes can be unsettling, and losing your peripheral vision is no exception. Because it is a symptom of a variety of other medical conditions—including some that are very serious—it's important to seek medical attention right away if you suddenly lose your peripheral vision. And because it can also be a gradual process, be sure to keep up with your regular eye exams, especially as you age.

Peripheral vision can be tested using a "confrontation visual field test." First, a doctor stands in front of the person being tested and has them focus on one area, such as the doctor's headgear. The person being tested covers one eye, and the doctor raises different numbers of fingers in the person's peripheral vision. They are then asked how many fingers are held up at a time.

Central vision is what we can see directly in front of us, while peripheral vision is what we can see from the corner of our eyes without turning our head.

A loss in peripheral vision is typically caused by an eye condition or eye injury. Some example of conditions that affect the eye include glaucoma (a group of diseases that damage the optic nerve), retinitis pigmentosa (breakdown of cells in the retina), and diabetes.

Brown LE, Halpert BA, Goodale MA. Peripheral vision for perception and action .  Exp Brain Res . 165(1):97-106. doi:10.1007/s00221-005-2285-y

University of California-Los Angeles Health Eye Care. Tunnel vision .

American Optometric Association. Low vision and vision rehabilitation .

American Academy of Ophthalmology. Vision loss, peripheral .

American Academy of Ophthalmology. Visual field test .

American Academy of Ophthalmology. Low vision diagnosis and treatment .

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Benefits of vision correction with contact lenses. Updated March 14, 2014.

National Eye Institute. Retinitis pigmentosa .

By Elizabeth Yuko, PhD Yuko has a doctorate in bioethics and medical ethics and is a freelance journalist based in New York.

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Discovery eye foundation, traveling with low or no vision, what good is sitting alone in your room.

Traveling with low or no vision

Travel Tools Everyday tools become even more essential when you are traveling in unfamiliar surroundings. A mobility cane (consider a small travel version) will let you find your way more easily — and notify others of your vision issues. This is especially helpful for two reasons: Strangers are less likely to get in your way and more likely to help if you ask for it. In a recent DEF blog post ( “Visual Aids and Techniques When Traveling”

Linda Becker, who has retinitis pigmentosa (RP) and travels primarily with her guide dog, is planning her next trip to Australia and New Zealand with Mind’s Eye Travel , a company that specializes in creating tours especially for people who are blind or visually impaired, as well as providing sighted guides. There are many such companies that will assist you with all facets of travel, from immigration documents to reservations to tour guides. Traveleyes offers discounts to sighted travelers in exchange for helping guide non-sighted travelers during group vacations around the world. DisabledTravelers.com is a good resource for companies that specialize in travel for people with accessibility issues. It includes reviews and recommendations on everything from airlines and cruises, to travel agents and hotels.

Plan, Prep, Pack Ask any experienced low-vision traveler, and they will tell you planning, planning and more planning is the key to successful travel. Not only will it make your trip go more smoothly, it will give you peace of mind, as well as the ability to relax and enjoy yourself. The fewer surprises, the more confident and comfortable you will feel. And if something does goes awry, it is easier “go with the flow,” because everything else has been planned.

Right at the top of the list with planning is, well, making a list. Prepare a list of all the items you will need, then double it. That means if you wear contact lenses, pack at least one extra pair, as well as cleaning solutions. Same goes for glasses and sunglasses. Make sure you have plenty of the medications and other supplies you use on a day-to-day basis. Most seasoned travelers suggest you have multiples of all these stashed in different bags: your carry-on, your suitcase and a handbag of some kind that never leaves your side. This way, if one bag gets lost, you still have another one or two. Sample sizes may become your best friend!

Carolyn Hammett, an accomplished photographer and world traveler who has keratoconus (KC), advises: “Be prepared; having backups makes you more comfortable. Be ready to change contact lenses in public restroom if you need to. Have one of everything you need, vision-wise, with you at all times.” To learn more about Hammett and see what she packs for a two-week trip, see “Through a Lens with One Eye Blind,” a story from our recent e-newsletter focused on travel experiences and tips.

“Leave extra time, notify airlines or others in advance that you may need assistance, and don’t be afraid to ask for help,” says Adam Lawrence, who also has RP and travels regularly with his guide dog. (Read more about traveling with guide dogs in “Traveling Tails” , from an article in our recent e-newsletter.

Speaking of help, don’t forget the helper sitting next to you right now, whether it’s a spouse, a friend or a guide dog. Traveling alone can be vexing for people with full vision, so it’s natural for those with low vision to feel even more anxiety.

Dame Judi Dench, who has age-related macular degeneration (AMD), recently told Radio Times she no longer travels alone. “I need someone to say, ‘Look out, there’s a step here!’ or else I fall all over the place like a mad, drunk lady,” she said.

“Don’t travel by yourself the first time — go with someone you trust, and let them know how much help you want,” Hammett says. “I’ve gotten to the point where I tell my husband, ‘Don’t tell me anything until I screw up.’”

With planning, preparation and practice, you may get to a point where you feel comfortable traveling alone. You will only know your limitations if you try to stretch them.

“Just try,” Hammett says. “Do it once to find out if you can.”

Additional Resources

Access-Able Travel Source’s “Travel Tips for People Who are Blind or Visually Impaired”

Society for Accessible Travel & Hospitality

Transportation Security Administration’s “Passengers Who Are Blind or Have Low Vision”

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Traveling With Low Vision

Tips for navigating travel by air, bus or rail when you can’t see well.

When you have a visual impairment, travel can seem challenging or even overwhelming. But with advance planning and these expert tips, you can comfortably — and safely — get to where you want to go.

The key? “Plan ahead,” says Carol A. Moog, senior mobility instructor at Lighthouse Guild : “Get as much information as you can before you leave your house. Go on websites to get train or bus directions, plan out your route and always leave more time than you think you’ll need.” 

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Bring documentation of your vision loss. Optometrist Ranjoo Prasad, the director of the Penn Center for Low Vision Rehabilitation at the University of Pennsylvania Scheie Eye Institute in Philadelphia, gives her traveling patients a letter stating their diagnosis. It may not be obvious that you’re visually impaired, she says, so a letter from an eye-care provider can make clear that you’re entitled to assistance.

Share your itinerary. Make sure somebody — a loved one back home or a friend you’ll be visiting — knows what your plans are, says Prasad. (You can consider using the Life360 app , which allows others to follow your every step.)

Consult with an expert. If it’s your first time traveling with a vision impairment, consider meeting with an orientation mobility specialist, a professional who teaches people with low vision how to travel safely, confidently and independently. You can find one through your state’s Office of Vocational Rehabilitation or State Commission for the Blind (search online to find your state's).

Be flexible. Do your best to accept that things don’t always go as planned, says Moog: “That’s a natural part of traveling, no matter your situation.”

Traveling by Air

Call ahead.  All airports should have a meet-and-assist program to help travelers with anything from check-in to boarding and baggage claim, says Miguel Reyes, certified orientation and mobility specialist at Blind & Vision Rehabilitation Services of Pittsburgh. By law you need to give airports at least 48 hours’ notice for them to be able to guarantee the services you need. “I encourage people to call and start their conversation by saying, ‘Hi, I’m visually impaired.’” Reyes says it will fast-track your call to the appropriate resources to get you what you need. 

Blind and low-vision travelers can also get help navigating airports using Aira assistive technology . Aira, a smartphone and smart-glasses-connected technology company, connects blind and low-vision people to trained agents who can help with navigation. It's available for free at many airports across the country; you just need to download the Aira smartphone app and sign up as a guest. At other airports, you can still access Aira but you need to subscribe to the service. 

Bring a magnifier or travel telescope.  Your eye-care provider can help you get a magnifying device that you can keep in your carry-on bag.

Tag your bags.  Put some kind of obvious marker on your luggage — like colored duct tape around the handle — to make it more noticeable to airport staff (or you) at baggage claim.

Speak up.  Make sure you’re not seated in an emergency exit row. Ask for help when you need it, and don’t be afraid to advocate for yourself. “Meet-and-assist workers may want to put you in a wheelchair, but if you’re not okay with that, you’re entitled to speak up,” Reyes says.

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Taking the Bus

Ask customer service for help navigating the station.  Multi-level bus stations, which are essentially large parking garages, often have steep escalators or stairs and can be confusing. If you’d prefer an elevator, don’t hesitate to ask customer service to point or guide you to one, says Moog. 

Talk to the driver.  As you board your bus, let your driver know you’re visually impaired, and ask him or her to please tell you when you’ve reach your stop. If you’re transferring, ask where to catch your connecting bus, says Reyes. 

Hold on to the railing.  Even buses that lower the steps at stops can present trip hazards for passengers entering or exiting. 

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Traveling by Train

Ask customer service for help.  Train stations can be chaotic, and tracks are often not announced until a few minutes before departure times. Moog says customer service representatives will be happy to bring you to your track on time. 

Ask questions.  When the train doors open while you’re waiting on the platform, it’s perfectly acceptable to call into the car and ask if it’s the train you’re expecting. Plenty of people do so, whether they have vision loss or not, Moog says, “It’s just a part of [train] culture.”

Choose a seat by a door.  Then you won’t have to climb over people when you reach your stop. 

Be familiar with the name of the stop before yours.  It will give you time to prepare so you'll be ready to go when you arrive at your stop.

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Yes, You Can Travel If You’re Blind or Have Low Vision

By Tom Mangan

Planning your visit 

Traveling to (and from) your destination , making the most of your destination, a few final points about traveling with low vision.

Tourism and travel do not require eyesight. Whether you’re blind or dealing with low vision, you just need new ways to apply what you already know about navigating the world.    

This guide to travel and tourism for blind and low-vision people will help you figure everything out. You’ll soon find out that your senses of smell, touch, hearing and taste provide everything you need to enjoy the wonders of our planet and its people. 

We’ll cover:

Planning – Anticipating accessibility challenges in advance.  

Navigating – Getting to your destination by plane, train, bus or cruise ship.    

Experiencing – Making the most of touring, dining and lodging at your destination. 

If you need inspiration, consider the case of James Holman , a sightless Englishman whose global travels made him a celebrity in the early 1800s. In an age when blind people were stigmatized and resources were negligible, Holman insisted on experiencing everything his world had to offer. Need a more recent example? Check out Tony the Traveller , who is totally sightless, partially deaf and the author of three e-books about his global solo travels.  

The National Library Service for the Blind and Print Disabled, part of the U.S. Library of Congress, maintains an extensive list of links for low vision travelers . It’s a great place to find specific guidance for things like assistance animals and accessibility on cruise lines.   

Now, let’s get moving on your travels.  

Preparation pays off when planning a vacation or tourism holiday for people with low vision. It’s a good idea to get started several months before you plan to go. You can plan everything yourself or work with a travel agent or professional tour guide. Just make sure they have experience with visually impaired travelers.  

Let’s walk through some of the most important things to plan.  

Choosing a destination 

If you’re undecided on where to travel, think about places that ignite the senses:

The spice of Thai food.

The aroma of a French bakery.

The touch of a Caribbean breeze. 

The sounds of Mideastern music.     

Look for articles online about adventure travel and urban tourism, and ask your friends with low vision for ideas about what to do and where to go. Once you've made a decision, it’s time to figure out how you can make the most of your trip.  

Assessing accessibility 

Some big cities are organized on grids that are easy to navigate. Remote villages may have few accessibility features, but the people there may be willing to help you out. 

Nations, states and metropolitan areas usually have tourism offices and websites for visitors. Scan these sites for resources for people with low vision and blindness. The more you learn about accessibility at your destination, the better you’ll do with the rest of your preparations.  

Weighing personal assistance 

Think about asking a sighted friend or family member to come along. That way you can spend more time enjoying yourself and less time on distractions when navigating a new environment. And you’ll have somebody you can share memories with for years to come. 

After you’ve traveled with a companion, you may decide you’d prefer to go solo. Just make sure you weigh the pros and cons of each choice. 

Preparing your canine assistant  

If you have an assistance dog, you’ll have to make a few special preparations. Immigration officials in the countries you’ll visit will probably need to know about your dog’s vaccination records and any other relevant health information. 

Some nations may require a quarantine. As you research your destinations and explore immigration policies, make sure you know all the rules specific to animals. And don’t forget about your dog’s dietary needs and medications. 

Acquiring documents and identification 

To pass through airport security, you’ll need a valid, state-issued photo ID. If you’re leaving the country, you’ll have to apply for a passport if you don’t have one already. Do this as soon as you pick your destination. There are always unanticipated paperwork hassles involved in getting government documentation. 

Again, ask your friends and acquaintances in the low vision community about their experiences. That should help move things along.  

Updating technologies, equipment and devices 

Make a checklist of the assistive devices you use every day. Are they in good condition, or should they be replaced or repaired? Make sure you have enough batteries and chargers — with adapters that match the plugs used in your destination (Europe and other regions of the world often have different electrical plug and socket formats than the U.S.). You might even consider getting duplicates for items that might get lost or stolen. 

Also, dozens of smartphone apps can help with things like GPS locations and audio descriptions of your environment. For instance, Be My Eyes is an app that connects users with volunteers who can describe objects within view of a smartphone’s camera.  

Filling prescriptions, getting shots 

Check with your doctor and pharmacist to make sure all of your medications and prescriptions are up to date. If you’re going overseas, find out about the vaccinations you’ll need. 

The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) has a handy page to help you match your destination with the recommended shots . The CDC strongly urges giving yourself at least a month before you leave to build up your immunities. 

Dealing with dietary needs 

If you’re a finicky eater, that’s fine — just avoid the stuff you don’t like. But if you have specific health requirements (gluten-free, diabetes-specific, etc.), then you have to start planning how to stay fed while traveling. 

As you sort through destinations, look for restaurants and other meal sources that can accommodate your needs. Yes, it’s time-consuming because most tourist destinations have a vast array of food sources. This underscores why you have to get an early start on your travel plans.  

Making reservations 

When booking flights and hotel nights online, make sure you include any special accommodations you’ll require. If you find you’ve booked everything without clicking any boxes or including information about your visual impairment, take time to find a customer service page where you can double-check their accessibility policies. 

Trying to get everything right when booking reservations can be an exercise in frustration if you try to do it all yourself. This is why many vacationers prefer to use travel agents and touring companies that specialize in working with people who have disabilities. It’s their job to get everything right.  

Telling people where you’re going  

Make sure you create an in-depth itinerary of your planned travels — especially if you’re going it alone. Even if you have a traveling companion, there’s always the potential to get separated for hours or perhaps days, depending on the ambitions of your travel plans. 

Leaving an itinerary behind also helps the folks back home coordinate their efforts if they need to track you down for a family emergency. 

Getting there — and back home safely — is the hard part. Planes, trains, buses and cruise ships have schedules to keep and millions of other travelers to deal with. A snowstorm in Chicago can trip up your international flight out of Atlanta.    

And then you have to find your way through a maze of dropping off luggage, going through security, finding your boarding location, getting seated, retrieving your luggage and starting your vacation in an unfamiliar place. It’s enough to make some people stay home. 

But you’ve made it this far and you’re not so easily discouraged. You just need specific guidance for the most likely modes of travel. 

Airports handle so many travelers that they are usually well-equipped to deal with people who have low vision or blindness. Typically, it’s just a matter of asking for help when you arrive at the terminal. 

Passing through security is the tricky part. Make sure you have your photo ID or passport ready at the checkpoint. If you have a cane or an assistance dog, you’ll require special attention from the security agents who have to x-ray everything. Be patient and cooperate with the agents’ requests.  

At the gate, tell the airline staff about your disability and they will help you board.   

Trains and buses

Train stations and bus depots may be easier to navigate than airports are, though this can vary by region and country. You may not have an assigned seat, however, so you may need to arrive early and get to the boarding area before a crowd builds up. 

Calling ahead a day or two before you arrive can help the local station or depot staff assign somebody to help you out. 

Cruise ships 

Affordability might be the only obstacle to a cruise vacation if you have low vision or blindness. A ship has everything you need in one place, with options for dining, entertainment, relaxation and socialization.

Getting to the ship poses a long list of logistical difficulties — you don’t want to miss the boat. All-inclusive packages that include airfare may be an attractive option, though you’ll pay more for them. 

Cruise lines can accommodate most dietary needs, but you’ll need to let them know in advance. Ships also have limited medical facilities for emergency care.

Packing your bags 

Don’t forget you’ll have limits on luggage. You’ll also want to mark your bags to make them easier to find in baggage carousels (unusual colors, bumper stickers or flowers that stick to the bottom of a bathtub might work). 

Always pack as lightly as possible and bring only the things you know you (and your assistance dog) will need. Always keep your most important items — medications, passport, documents — with you in a carry-on. Checked baggage is for extra clothing and other non-essentials.  

If you plan thoroughly, you just have to take your time and enjoy your vacation once you reach your destination. A lot of that depends on where you stay, what you eat and where you go. 

Hotels, resorts, spas, bed-and-breakfasts and other places to stay should not have a problem accommodating guests with low vision. There could be issues with stairs and other obstacles. Contacting the management in advance can help ensure somebody is available to help you navigate.

Most lodgings have strict rules for pets that may apply to your service dog. Make sure you find out the rules before your arrival.  

If you plan ahead, you may be able to secure Braille menus if you need them. Be sure to double-check that restaurants and other dining establishments can accommodate your dietary needs. Sometimes you don’t find out what’s available until you’re on-site and placing your order. 

Again, don’t forget about the dietary needs of your service dog. 

Touring 

You might feel fine kicking back at the hotel lounge and taking a taxi to a local concert. Guided tours reduce the risk of getting lost or injured in an accident, but you may not enjoy the regimented timeline. Do what feels best while staying in your comfort zone.    

Keep these thoughts in mind throughout your vacation:

Citizens of other countries may have different attitudes toward people with disabilities. These attitudes might not be negative — people might be too helpful — but they may take some patience on your part. Be prepared to educate people on how much assistance you need.  

Ask lots of questions. Things you take for granted at home (like flush toilets) may be foreign concepts in foreign lands. 

Get familiar with exchange rates and local currencies. If you’re not buying with your home currency, it may be difficult to estimate the costs of local goods and services. Take some time to work out the math. 

Reach out to people with low vision for information and advice. They’re the perfect allies when you’re in unfamiliar territory. 

Vacation is a time to relax and take a break from the relentless stresses of everyday life. Wherever you go, give yourself plenty of time. If you enjoy having a schedule, then go ahead and travel with a tour group. If you’d rather improvise, then don’t overstress yourself trying to stay on somebody else’s timetable. 

Perhaps the best way to vacation is to soak up the benefits of your strongest senses. It’s a gift to taste a fine wine or touch a stone worn smooth by a mountain stream. Let yourself enjoy those moments — and let them inspire your next vacation.  

READ NEXT: Tactile paving

Notes and References

Tales of a blind traveler . National Public Radio. August 2006.  

Meet our contributors – Tony the Traveller . GetAboutAble.com. Accessed April 2021.

Travel and recreation for the visually impaired and physically disabled . National Library Service for the Blind and Print Disabled. Accessed April 2021. 

Traveling internationally with a guide dog or service animal . Mobility International USA. Accessed April 2021.

Before you fly: The transportation Security Administration and people with visual impairments . Access World, American Federation for the Blind. September 2012.

World map showing the spread of plug types . WorldStandards. March 2021.

Be My Eyes . Be My Eyes. Accessed April 2021.

Complete list of destinations . Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Accessed April 2021.

Get vaccinated before you travel . Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Accessed April 2021.

Traveling on trains and buses . VisionAware.com. Accessed April 2021.

Cruising as a senior with a visual impairment: How to get the most out of your adventure . Access World, American Foundation for the Blind. February 2016.

Packing for holiday travel . VisionAware.com. December 2013. 

Blind and low vision tips for going abroad . Mobility International USA. Accessed April 2021.

Page published on Wednesday, May 12, 2021

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Cornea: is the clear outer surface of the eye the covers the iris, pupil, and the outer chamber of the eye...  more

Iris: in the anatomy of an eye, the iris controls the size of the opening of the pupil. This in turn controls the amount of light that can enter the eye...  more

Occipital cortex: the part of the brain responsible for processing what we see.

Optic nerve: The nerve behind the eye that transmits visual information from the retina to the brain.

Pupil: is the hole that allow light to enter the eye. In humans it is round, but other animals like cats and goats the pupil is shaped more like a slit.... more

Retina: getting its name from the Latin meaning "net", the retina is located at the back of the eye and is where light is detected...  more

How Do We See?

Detailed diagram of the eye and its parts. Click for more detail.

Take a look around you. What do you see? You might see a computer or phone with a shining, colorful screen. A piece of paper may be under your left hand and a sharpened pencil in your right hand. While you look at these objects with your eyes, your brain is what is recognizing the objects. Many people take sight for granted, but how are you able to see and register objects?

You probably already know that your body has five senses that help you experience the world around you. These senses are touch, taste, hearing, smell, and sight. Although all of your senses are important, many people think that sight would be the most difficult one to live without.

If you could not see, how would you watch TV, cook food and not burn yourself, or walk across the street without being hit by a car? Many people do all kinds of activities without being able to see. Let's learn a bit more about how vision works.

A comparison of a camera and an eye. Click for more detail.

The information that some animals receive through their eyes is called “visual information” or “vision.” For now, let's think of the eye as a sort of camera.

How Do Cameras Work?

You and your friends have only been hiking for about an hour, but already, you've probably taken a hundred photos. Up ahead is another perfect opportunity: a brightly colored flower seems to be glowing in the sunlight. You hold your camera up to take a picture.

For your camera to work, light must come in through the lens and reach the back of the camera. When you point the camera at a flower, the sunlight that bounces off the flower enters through the lens. The lens directs the light so that it shines onto the back of the camera.

The image made by your eye or a camera is flipped. Click for more detail.

Light cannot bend and must travel in a straight line. Because the area in the lens where light goes in is very small compared to the size of the object, the light that contains the image will create an upside down and flipped picture. The images that are captured on your retina are also upside down but your brain converts the information so you perceive the world correctly. 

So, light enters the camera and the image is flipped. What happens next? Digital cameras have an area with little sensors that are sensitive to light. Sensors will collect the bits of light that come through the camera and organize them to create a picture of the flower.

A picture is actually made from a lot of small squares called pixels. However, because they are so small, you don’t see the individual pixels. When the pixel squares are put together, they will create a picture or photograph you can see. 

This picture of a flower is made up of a lot of colored boxes. In the flower on the left, they are so small you cannot see them.

Your eyes work much like a camera. Light bounces off the image in front of you and comes into your eyes through the cornea. The cornea is a clear thin layer on the outside of your eyes. The cornea will help direct the light towards your pupil and Iris. These two parts work together to control the amount of light entering your eye.

The iris is the colored part of your eye and the pupil is the little dark circle in the center of your eye. You may have noticed that sometimes your pupils are bigger and sometimes they are smaller. This is because an iris can shrink and grow, allowing different amounts of light to pass through your pupils. This is like controlling the aperture of a camera.

Once the light comes through the pupil it will go through the eye’s lens. Just like in a camera, the lens is used to focus on an object and direct the light to the back of the eye. The back of the eye is called the retina and it has special sensors called cones and rods. Visual information excites the cone and rod sensors. Cones are involved in seeing color . 

Nerves from the eyes connect to the occipital cortex at the back of the brain. Click for more detail.

Once the cones and rods have been exposed to light, they translate the visual information into electric information. The optic nerve will send this information to your brain. The tiny nerve cells are able to take the electric form of the image in front of you and send it to the brain’s visual cortex or “Vision Center.”

The “Vision Center,” is located in the back part of your brain (the occipital cortex or lobe). It is responsible for decoding the electrical information coming from the retina. The vision center interprets the electric form of the image, allowing you to form a visual map. 

As you can SEE , vision is a complex process. The brain has to do a lot of work to make a picture. But what happens if what you see is blurry ? Maybe you or someone you know may need to wear glasses or contacts in order to see clearly. You may even know someone who is blind and cannot see at all. How do you think they see the world ?

Additional images via Wikimedia Commons. Colored sphere by Theon.

Read more about: How Do We See?

View citation, bibliographic details:.

• Article: How Do We See?
• Author(s): Page Baluch, Ashleigh Gonzales
• Publisher: Arizona State University School of Life Sciences Ask A Biologist
• Site name: ASU - Ask A Biologist
• Date published: July 1, 2015
• Date accessed: May 15, 2024
• Link: https://askabiologist.asu.edu/explore/how-do-we-see

Page Baluch, Ashleigh Gonzales. (2015, July 01). How Do We See?. ASU - Ask A Biologist. Retrieved May 15, 2024 from https://askabiologist.asu.edu/explore/how-do-we-see

Chicago Manual of Style

Page Baluch, Ashleigh Gonzales. "How Do We See?". ASU - Ask A Biologist. 01 July, 2015. https://askabiologist.asu.edu/explore/how-do-we-see

MLA 2017 Style

Page Baluch, Ashleigh Gonzales. "How Do We See?". ASU - Ask A Biologist. 01 Jul 2015. ASU - Ask A Biologist, Web. 15 May 2024. https://askabiologist.asu.edu/explore/how-do-we-see

You might only experience this sphere image by seeing it, but if it were an object physically in front of you, you could also touch it, smell it, taste it (if you want), and try to listen to it.

Do insects see the same thing you do? Visit  insect vision  to learn more.

Learn more about our five senses .

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Low Vision: Orientation and Mobility

• Mark Complete

Introduction

The International Classification of Functioning, Disabilities, and Health, Children and Youth Version, and Management of Low Vision in Children (World Health Organization) established that visual functioning of infants and young children can be stated in 4 main areas of daily life function: 1,2

• Orientation and mobility (O&M)
• Communication
• Activities of daily living (ADL)
• Sustained near-vision tasks

The effect on these 4 main areas varies depending on the type and degree of impairment and additional impairments. The effect is also influenced by the social environment and culture the child lives in. 2

Parents and relatives who live with and relate to a low-vision child might fear for the child's safety, depriving them of elementary experiences necessary for physical survival and psycho-emotional and social maturity, both of which can increase dependence, increasing the damage caused by the visual disabilities themselves.

Orientation and mobility (O&M) training can help develop the child's orientation in space as well as movement and safety in travelling.

O&M instruction is not only crucial to the multihandicapped child, but can also be very helpful to the mild or moderately vision-impaired child as well. (See Delayed Visual Development: Development of Vision and Visual Delays .)

Severely affected O&M causes further serious limits on a visually impaired child. By walking independently, a child with low vision will have more opportunities to achieve their social integration and become independent individuals.

Orientation

Orientation means an awareness of position in space. 3 It refers to the ability of a child to realize his surroundings, establishing body, space, and time relations with his environment through the senses of hearing, touch, smell, and residual vision.

Mobility means the capability of moving through the environment safely, efficiently, and independently. 3 It refers to the ability of child to move and to react to various stimuli. This is often achieved through a teaching-learning process that involves the use of several features including a sighted guide, a long cane or a support cane, a protective arm, trailing, a guide dog, and an electronic aid.

There are no reliable current statistics on the use of canes or guide dogs in the United States, especially in children. However, Guiding Eyes for the Blind estimates that "there are approximately 10,000 guide dog teams currently working in the United States and about 2% of all people who are visually impaired work with guide dogs." 4

O&M is usually available on an itinerant basis in the community or in a school for the blind.

O&M Training

Basic guidelines.

• Considering its complexity, O&M training must be stepwise and geared toward helping the low-vision child eventually move and navigate independently.
• O&M training is much more than simply teaching the technique on how to use the cane. Both the psychosocial and cognitive aspects relevant to teaching a person with disabilities must be considered, especially for them to get around with autonomy in locomotion and self-confidence.
• An O&M training program must be geared toward the difficulties of each low-vision child individually.
• A child who is born with low vision or who becomes visually impaired very early in life might have problems related to the development of concepts linked to position, location, direction, and distance.
• At the minimum, each child should be given as many practical and meaningful experiences related to the context of their particular life, and this should be started in early intervention programs.
• Evaluating basic visual functions for each child is very useful. The ophthalmologist should always try to find ways to improve contrast, color differentiation, and appropriate illumination of the environment.
• Procedures and skills should also be transferred to the family members, who in turn will reinforce continuation of learning these skills at home. (See Delayed Visual Development: Development of Vision and Visual Delays .)

O&M Programs

O&M programs should be structured individually for each patient. Although individualized, it should be exercised in small groups, with the participation of other professionals and family.

The objective is to provide conditions for a child with visual impairment to develop their abilities to navigate and move independently.

O&M training should cover activities that allow the child to explore their maximum potential. Some technical considerations are listed below:

• Basic movement: locomotive, manipulative
• Perceptual skills: visual discrimination, auditory, tactile, olfactory, and coordination ability
• Physical capacity: cardiovascular and muscular strengths, flexibility, and agility
• Nonverbal communication: Common postural problems are tilting the head forward or downward, avoidance of extension of the arms, dragging of feet and arms, and loss of balance. The longer the duration of immobility after the diagnosis of low vision, the more pronounced difficulties might be found.

The program is divided into 2 parts: indoors and outdoors. 3,5

Part 1: Indoors

• Training in the use of residual vision and nonvisual senses
• Interpretation of clues, establishment of benchmarks, relationship with space and time through the remaining senses
• Skills to be developed: techniques using a sighted guide, self-protection, and long-cane techniques

Part 2: Outdoors

After achieving adequate indoor abilities, the child can move to outdoor experiences such as mobility in areas with intense pedestrian traffic, familiarization with vehicles, public transit, elevators, supermarkets, shopping malls, and other specific environments. Follow-up is essential. The mobility instructor must accompany the child to give reorientation, avoid accidents, and discuss difficulties with the patient and family.

The sooner the O&M training begins, the easier it will be for the child to build an organized self-image, body awareness, and independence in daily life.

• World Health Organization. International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health: Children and Youth Version. ICF-CY. WHO Press. 2007.
• World Health Organization. Program for the Prevention of Blindness: Management of low vision in children. Report of a WHO Consultation. Bangkok: 1992.
• WHO/PBL/93.37.
• Faye EE. Clinical Low Vision. 2a.Ed. Boston/Toronto: Little, Brown, and Company. 1984. 415433.
• Guiding Eyes for the Blind. General Information. 2014 .
• Hyvarinen L, Jacob N. What and How Does this Child See? Assessment of Visual Functioning for Development and Learning. Helsinki, Finland: Vistest Ltd. 2011. 174.

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What is Orientation and Mobility?

This content is also available in: Español ( Spanish )

Orientation and Mobility (O&M) is a profession specific to blindness and low vision that teaches safe, efficient, and effective travel skills to people of all ages:

• “Orientation” refers to knowing where you are and where you want to go, whether you’re moving from one room to another or walking downtown for a shopping trip.
• “Mobility” refers to the ability to move safely, efficiently, and effectively from one place to another, such as walking without tripping or falling, crossing streets, and using public transportation.

Orientation and Mobility Specialists

An Orientation and Mobility (O&M) Specialist provides instruction to help you develop or re-learn the skills and concepts needed to travel safely and independently within your home and the community. O&M Specialists provide services across the lifespan, teaching infants and children in pre-school and school programs and adults in various community-based and rehabilitation settings.

The Academy for Certification of Vision Rehabilitation and Education Professionals (ACVREP) offers certification for vision rehabilitation professionals , including O&M Specialists. A Certified Orientation and Mobility Specialist (COMS) must adhere to a professional Code of Ethics and demonstrate knowledge and teaching skills in the following areas:

• Sensory development, or maximizing all of your senses to help you know where you are and where you want to go
• Using your senses in combination with self-protective techniques and human guide techniques to move safely through indoor and outdoor environments
• Using a cane and other devices to walk safely and efficiently
• Soliciting and/or declining assistance
• Finding destinations with strategies that include following directions and using landmarks and compass directions
• Techniques for crossing streets, such as analyzing and identifying intersections and traffic patterns
• Problem-solving skills to determine what to do if you are disoriented or lost or need to change your route
• Using public transportation and transit systems.

Amy Bovaird, Author of  Mobility Matters: Stepping Out in Faith  and  Cane Confessions: The Lighter Side to Mobility

Amy Bovaird is a VisionAware Peer Advisor and author of  Mobility Matters: Stepping Out in Faith  and  Cane Confessions: The Lighter Side to Mobility , her compelling memoirs that recount her life as an international teacher and traveler, her diagnosis of retinitis pigmentosa, and her triumph at learning to travel independently once again, using her long white cane.

Says Amy, “Mobility matters. It allows me to join the rest of society, follow my interests and passions, and reconnect with my love for traveling. I don’t have to stay at home fearing the dark anymore. I can live independently.”Learn more about ways to find emotional support for you – and your family members – after an eye condition diagnosis:

• Support groups and the adjustment process
• Use our  Getting Started Guide  for more ideas to help you live well with low vision.

Orientation and Mobility Instruction

O&M instruction is usually conducted on a one-to-one basis. It can take place either in the community where you live and/or work (called “itinerant O&M”) or at a rehabilitation center (called “center-based O&M”).

To locate an Orientation and Mobility Specialist in your home area, our Directory of Services includes information about Orientation and Mobility instruction.

The Different Types of Canes

Two types of canes are most commonly used:

• The  support cane  provides physical stability. A white support cane can identify you as a person who is blind or has low vision.
• The  probing cane  (more commonly called a “white cane” or a “long cane”) probes for and locates obstacles in your path of travel.

Left:  One type of support cane (credit: Wikipedia) Middle:  One type of “probing” cane (credit: Wikipedia) Right:  Using a support cane and a probing cane for outdoor travel (credit: Dona Sauerburger)

Long white canes come in two categories: folding canes and straight-style. Folding canes, which can be collapsed and stored easily, come in aluminum or graphite models. Graphite canes are lighter and easier to fold and unfold than aluminum ones. While great for travel, folding canes tend to be less sturdy when compared to straight (non-folding) canes and don’t provide the same amount of sensory feedback.

A popular straight-style cane is made of fiberglass, which is ultra-light, provides lots of sensory feedback, and bends slightly if it slides under a car or similar obstacle.

A Support Cane Should:

• Be  strong  enough to support your weight. This usually means that a support cane is  not lightweight .
• Be  short  enough to rest your hand on top while you hold it close to your body.
• Have a  tip that grips the floor  and does not slide.

A Probing Cane (“White Cane” or “Long Cane”) Should:

• Be  lightweight  to hold and move it in front of you without becoming tired.
• Be  long  enough to reach ahead and warn you about obstacles and stairs.
• Have a  tip that can slide  easily along the ground.

A support cane and a probing cane are designed differently and serve very different purposes, so the choice of which cane to use will depend on your needs:

If you need a cane to help you know what is on the ground in front of you, it is recommended that you use a probing cane.

• Please note:  If you use a support cane to probe the ground ahead, it is usually impossible to reach far enough ahead without leaning forward. This harms your posture and appearance and is risky, particularly when approaching descending stairs. If you miss your footing or lose your balance while leaning forward, you will likely fall forward and tumble down the stairs.

You will need two canes if you can’t see well enough to know what is on the ground in front of you and need a cane for support.

• One cane will provide the support you need, and the other will probe ahead to scan for obstacles, stairs, and curbs.
• It may seem awkward and difficult to use two canes, but with effective orientation and mobility (O&M) instruction, people of all ages have learned to use two canes correctly and safely .

A wide variety of cane tips now provide smoother operation and more durability. Each tip has its pros and cons.

• Pencil tip.  Pros: Good feedback and lightness make it a good choice for people who have problems moving their wrist for long periods of time. Cons: The long, thin tip tends to get stuck in cracks in the sidewalk.
• Roller tip.  Pros: Rolls over cracks in the sidewalk, making for a smoother walk. Cons: Greater weight can add to wrist fatigue; it doesn’t give the traveler as much feedback about small terrain changes.
• Marshmallow tip.  Pros: The thick tip won’t get stuck in cracks easily. Cons: The tip is heavy and can cause wrist fatigue over time.
• Metal glide.  Pros: Very light; glides easily over cracks.
• Cane tips have been developed for travel in wilderness areas and farms, such as the “Bundu Basher.” For more information about the Bundu Basher cane tip, including photographs, explanations, and ordering information, see  Bundu Basher .

Left:  Cane tips from AmbuTech are now available in a wide variety of styles and functions (credit: AmbuTech) Right Top:  The “Bundu Basher” cane tip for wilderness travel (credit: Dona Sauerburger) Right Bottom:  Rural travel with the “Bundu Basher” cane tip and a support cane (credit: Moira Higgerty)

Can I use a cane if I also use a wheelchair?

You can use a wheelchair and learn how to use a long cane to help navigate obstacles and drop-offs. However, success depends on individual circumstances, such as your type and level of vision, overall physical limitations, and chair style. Consult your O&M specialist about whether using a long cane with a wheelchair is right for you.

Alternative mobility devices (AMDs)

Alternative mobility devices have been developed that provide full protection for people who cannot use the cane reliably or move it correctly, either because of physical limitations (including difficulty or pain when moving the wrist) or cognitive disabilities.

Orientation and Mobility Video

This content is also available in: Español (Spanish)Introduction to walking and getting around with vision loss. Transcript of Video NARRATOR 1: A man using a cane climbs steps at a shopping […]

UponArriving

Guide to Visiting Airports & Flying with Vision Impairments

Traveling with a disability can be extremely stressful and when you’re dealing with vision impairments, navigating through a bustling airport can be a true challenge. But there are a number of laws and procedures in place that can make this experience much less stressful and daunting.

In this article, I’m going to provide some helpful information and tips for traveling through airports and taking flights while visually impaired. I’ll explain how to notify the airlines regarding your limitations and what type of assistance you can expect to receive for yourself or for someone you’re helping to assist.

Disclosure: This article contains NO sponsorships or affiliate related products in any way.

Table of Contents

Know your legal rights under Title 14 CFR § 382

In the case of flying with a disability, the law is definitely on your side. In fact, the  Air Carrier Access Act (Title 14 CFR § 382) has you covered in many different areas and I’ll highlight a few of these key summary points taken from the DOT.

Tip: Use the free app WalletFlo to help you travel the world for free by finding the best travel credit cards and promotions!

Can’t be refused transportation

• Airlines may not refuse transportation to people on the basis of disability.
• Airlines may exclude anyone from a flight if carrying the person would be “inimical” (detrimental) to the safety of the flight.
• If a carrier excludes a person with a disability on safety grounds, the carrier must provide a written explanation of the decision.

Notification not required

• Airlines may not require advance notice that a person with a disability is traveling. Air carriers may require up to 48 hours’ advance notice for certain accommodations that require preparation time (like a respirator hook-up).

No limitations on disabled persons

• Airlines may not limit the number of persons with disabilities on a flight.

Solo travel allowed

• Airlines may not require a person with a disability to travel with another person, except in certain limited circumstances where the rule permits the airline to require a safety assistant.

Seat selection

• Airlines may not keep anyone out of a specific seat on the basis of disability, or require anyone to sit in a particular seat on the basis of disability, except to comply with FAA safety requirements (like exit rows).

There are also special protections for service animals but I’ll talk about those in-depth below.

Notify the airlines

While advanced notice to the airlines is not required, if you need any level of assistance it helps if you notify agents regarding your needs at the various stages through the airport, such as ticketing, baggage, security, and boarding. In fact, many airlines insist on you doing this.

For example, Southwest states:

Customers who are blind or have low vision and require assistance must identify themselves and the type of assistance they require upon arrival at the airport, at the gate, onboard the aircraft, at any connection points, and at the destination.

But before you ever arrive at the airport, you also should indicate on your flight reservation that you’ll be in need of assistance for vision impairment.

Most airlines allow you to do this at the time of making your reservation. Typically, you’ll need to do this by finding a special tab to click on on the page where you will input your personal details, such as your name and contact information.

To give you a sense of what to expect, I’ll show you how to do this for each major domestic airline below.

Alaska Airlines

After selecting your travel dates and your fare, continue through the booking process until you get to the page requesting passenger details. There will be a tab that says “Request Services.”

Click on that and then there will be a pop-window with more options. You’ll need to select “Blind / low vision.”

American Airlines

After selecting your travel dates and your fare, continue through the booking process until you get to the page requesting passenger details. There will be a tab that says “Add special assistance.”

Click on that and then there will be a pop-window with more options. You’ll need to select “Special assistance needed at the airport” and then “Blind / low vision assistance.”

Delta does things different from the other US airlines. For sighted assistance, fill out the Accessibility Service Request form in “My Trips”  after you have made your reservation.  Once you access that request form, you’ll se the fields that you need to select as shown below. With Delta, you can request the specific type of assistance needed.

Also, though not required, Delta does request that customers notify them if they are traveling with a service animal.

After selecting your flight and the fare, you’ll be taken to a page to enter in your personal details. This is also the page where you can indicate that you’ll need special assistance. Check the box for “I’d like to add a special request for this traveler” and then select the drop down menu for “Special Service Request” where you can select “Visually Impaired.”

After selecting your flight and the fare, you’ll be taken to a page to enter in your personal details. This is also the page where you can use the “Special Assistance” link to indicate that you require assistance. If you’re making a booking you’ll find this option on the “Passenger & Payment Info” page as shown below.

After selecting your flight and the fare, you’ll be taken to a page to enter in your personal details. This is also the page where you can indicate that you’ll need special assistance. Simply click on the field to enter the passenger information and then you’ll see a drop-down menu near the bottom for “Special travel needs (Optional).”

If you have a disability and require special seating to accommodate your disability, you will have an opportunity to request special seating through Manage Reservations or by going to United’s seating accommodations webpage after you have completed your reservation.

Getting through the airport on your own

If you’re planning on traveling through the airport solo, you might want to do some research on the layout of the airport to the extent possible.

It will be a good idea to get familiar with:

• The airport terminals
• Different levels of the terminals 
• Check-in areas 
• Help desks 
• Food courts and restaurants 

Start by locating the terminal for the airport that you’re flying in and then mentally map out where you might need to go. Once you’re checked in, you should be able to see your gate but note that the gate locations are subject to change.

Also, get a sense of what type of transportation exists between terminals. Sometimes you can walk between terminals without an issue but other times you’ll have to exit the airport and then re-enter through security. Also, some airports will have automated people movers so you won’t have to do as much walking.

You might also want to look into the Nearby Explorer App  with its “Indoor Explorer” feature that acts like an audio guide that can tell you exactly where you are in an airport, step by step. 

Another program is Aira , which allows you to get real-time assistance via smart glasses and smartphone software that connects to remote live agents.

Getting assistance through the airport

There are two main ways you might get assistance through the airport when flying. The first is with a non-passenger escort which is likely someone that you know and can trust that can assist you and the second is by requesting special assistance from an airline agent.

I’ll go over both of these below.

Non-passenger escort

A non-passenger escort pass (NPE) is a special pass that allows someone to accompany you through TSA security who is not flying. This is offered not only to the disabled but also to minors and even to military personnel heading out to war zones.

With an NPE, a companion can accompany you all the way up to boarding and they also can accompany you from the point of arrival at the gate. They will need to show a government-issued ID at the ticket counter and it’s best if the two of you are together and they have your itinerary details.

Two important things you need to note about NPEs:

• If the flight arrival occurs after security checkpoint has closed for the evening, then the airline will not be able to provide a NPE pass. So always consider the timing of flights and try to schedule flight arrivals for normal business hours if possible if you think you’ll be in need of an NPE pass.
• Also, NPEs are NOT issued for people meeting passengers on incoming international flights back into the US, due to customs and immigration rules and regulations.

Assistance from an airline agent

Airlines allow you to receive assistance during every step of your travel including:

• From the point of arrival at the airport’s curb
• Traveling through the terminal
• Locating connections 
• Arrival 
• Luggage 
• Getting to pick-up

You just need to make sure you that you put the airline on notice that you will be traveling with a vision impairment with the steps described above. In addition to putting the airlines on notice via your reservation, you should feel free to call them at any time to clear up any questions that you might have.

You can also contract TSA Cares for disability-related questions:

• Email TSA Cares
• Call them at: (855) 787-2227 (Call 72 hours prior to traveling)

Traveling with your mobility cane

If you depend on a mobility cane to any degree, you’ll want to think about a few things when making your way through the airport.

Getting through security

Your mobility cane may have to be put through the x-ray machine when making your way through security. However, TSA should give you your cane back before you have to proceed through the metal detector.

This means you can use your cane to get through the metal detector, but if you set off the detector you’ll likely be subject to a body scan with a hand metal detector/wand along with a pat down and your cane might be inspected/ swabbed .

If you want to avoid this you can request a TSA agent to guide you through the metal detector without your cane and you won’t be subject to additional screening unless you trigger the alarm. Your cane will likely still be inspected or x-rayed, though.

Storing your cane onboard

Once you’ve boarded, you may not be able to store your cane in the overhead bin if it’s too long. In those cases, you’ll want to store it under the seat in front of you.

If you take a window seat you can utilize the wall of the plane (fuselage) and store your cane along the wall. This will help it to not interfere with other passengers — just try to keep a foot on it to keep it from sliding up and down the cabin during take-off and landing.

Another option could be the closet found in some cabins for coats. Simply ask the flight attendant if that’s a possibility and they should be able to bring it back to you just before arrival.

When in doubt

If you’re not fully dependent on your cane, you might still consider bringing it with you because many report that traveling with a white cane make life easier because it puts others on notice of your potential sight limitations.

Some find that it also adds “legitimacy” for those who only have limited eyesight impairments since some people can unfortunately be reluctant to acknowledge your disability without “proof.”

Tip: Use WalletFlo for all your credit card needs. It’s free and will help you optimize your rewards and savings!

Service animals/guide dogs

Airlines will allow your guide dogs to fly with you for no additional cost.

Most airlines classify service animals as those who have been trained to perform a specific task to assist the customer traveling such as pathfinding, providing stability, alerting to sounds, etc. So animals trained to assist with vision impairments certainly fall into this category.

According to 14 CFR § 382.117 , the airlines are required to accept the following types of identifications for service animals:

• Identification cards
• Other written documentation
• Presence of harnesses
• Credible verbal assurances of a qualified individual with a disability using the animal

However, if they refuse to accept your guide dog, the airline must explain the reason for the decision to the passenger and document it in writing. A copy of the explanation must be provided to you either at the airport, or within 10 calendar days of the incident.

There are also a couple of additional protections that you have:

• Airlines can’t deny a service animal on the basis that it may offend or annoy passengers
• Airlines must permit the service animal to accompany you at any seat, unless exceptions apply
• If a service animal cannot be accommodated at your seat, the airlines must offer you the opportunity to move with the animal to another seat location, if present on the aircraft, where the animal can be accommodated.

Read more about laws governing service animals here . 

Typically, the restrictions for service animals are lower than those for emotional support animals. For example, you typically have to submit paperwork 48 hours prior to departure for emotional support animals and are limited to a single animal.

The restrictions for service animals are pretty similar across the board but below are some of the key points for the service animal policies for the different airlines. Also, if you want to look more in-depth at each airline you can follow the link at the bottom of each section to the webpage dedicated to service animals. 

• Trained service animals or emotional support animals travel for free.
• The size of the animal must not exceed the footprint or personal space of the guest’s seat or foot area during the entire flight.
• Service animals or emotional support animals must be under the control of the owner at all times in the airport and onboard the aircraft.
• If your dog or cat is in an approved carrier, it must be stowed under the seat in front of you for taxi, take off, and landing, in accordance with FAA regulations.
• Service animals or emotional support animals are expected to be seated on the floor space below a guest’s seat or, if no larger than an infant, seated in the guest’s lap, if needed to accommodate your disability.

Read more about the Alaska Airlines requirements for service animals here.

• Animals must be able to fit at your feet, under your seat or in your lap (animals to be seated on lap must be smaller than a 2-year old child).
• For safety reasons, you won’t be able to sit in an exit row when traveling with your service or emotional / psychiatric support animal.
• On flights over 8 hours, documentation is required stating your animal won’t need to relieve itself or can do so in a way that doesn’t create a health or sanitation issue.

Read more about the American requirements for service animals here.

Delta has the following recommendations when it comes to service animals:

• Travel with the animal’s Veterinary Health Form or Immunization Record on your person
• While not required, we request passengers fill out the   Trained Service Animal PDF  (submit at least 48 hours before your flight)
• Upload it to  My Trips  through the  Accessibility Service Request Form
• On Delta flights, service and support animals are expected to be seated in the floor space below a passenger’s seat or seated in a passenger’s lap.
• The size of the animal must not exceed the “footprint” of the passenger’s seat.
• Service and support animals under four months of age are not allowed on any flight due to rabies vaccination requirements.

Read more about the Delta requirements for service animals here .

Here’s what JetBlue has for its service animal requirements:

• Please add the animal to your reservation when booking online or notify JetBlue at 1-800-JETBLUE (538-2583) of the animal’s travel.
• If you are traveling with more than one service animal, JetBlue will make every reasonable effort to accommodate the space needed.
• Your animal(s) must fit within the footprint of your seat(s).
• All animals must remain on the floor; however, if the animal is no larger than a lap infant and is well-behaved, circumstances may permit the animal to remain in your lap.
• Service animals in training are not accepted for travel on JetBlue.

Read more about the JetBlue requirements for service animals here.

Southwest Airlines welcomes trained dogs, cats, and miniature horses as service animals onboard our flights as long as the Customer is able to provide credible verbal assurance that the animal is a trained service animal. Southwest Airlines does not accept unusual or exotic species of animals.

Read more about the Southwest requirements for service animals here .

• The animal is expected to be seated in the floor space below your seat
• The animal should not extend into the aisles
• The animal must behave properly in public and should follow directions from its owner
• Contact the United Accessibility Desk at 1-800-228-2744 if you have any questions or special requirements

Read more about the United requirements for service animals here.

International travel with service animals

NOTE:  If you are traveling out of the country or to Hawaii you need to be careful about special requirements regarding quarantine of your animals.

You should contact the appropriate consulate or embassy at least four weeks before departure to make sure that all necessary procedures are followed. You might need to abide by these regulations even if you are just passing through an airport.

To check on the requirements for visiting foreign countries with animals you can check the USDA website here .

Getting through security with your service animal

Once you approach the TSA screening area, be sure to notify them that your animal is a service animal so that there is no confusion (even if it should be obvious).

You can choose which way you think it best for getting through TSA security with your service animal. You basically have three options:

• Allow your dog to go through first (preferably while on a leash)
• Allow your dog to go through after your (preferably while on a leash)
• Go through security together (holding your animal or with it on a leash)

Try to suggest your preferred method to the TSA agents if they don’t recommend it.

If you walk through together and the metal detector goes off you and your service animal will be subject to additional screening, including pat downs and the animal will be subject to the inspection described below.

If the animal sets the alarm off by itself, it will be subject to a closer inspection. The TSA agent should request your permission to inspect your animal and then proceed to take a close look at it, including items like its leash, collar, harness, backpacks, vest, etc.

You should not have to remove any of those items from the animal but if there are screening issues, they might (in rare circumstances) request for you to remove some of those items. 

When dealing with TSA, try to be as patient and polite as possible but if you run into issues with security consider the section below for resolving those.

Also, you might want to consider programs like TSA Pre-Check and CLEAR which will generally allow you to avoid longer lines and get through security much quicker for a much less painful experience.

Tip: There is a  “Where to Go” app for Apple or Android that can help you find airport dog relief areas.

Complaint Resolutions Official ( CRO )

Each air carrier is required to have one or more designated  Complaint Resolutions Official  (CRO) on site or available by phone. The officer should have a thorough understanding of the Air Carrier Access Act (ACAA) and the carrier’s policies and procedures related to 14 CFR Part 382 , which can cover things like: services, facilities, and accommodations for passengers with disabilities.

So this is someone who is there to help to resolve any issues you might encounter when navigating through the airport related to your disability. For example, if you are given trouble regarding a guide dog or because you’re traveling with some type of medical equipment, you may want to request to see a CRO.

You’ll first want to try to resolve the issue with a TSA agent/airline’s agent or a “passenger support specialist”/supervisor but if you’re not able to do that and you don’t feel like the conversation is going to go anywhere then request to contact a CRO.

Airlines should allow you to board first before any other passenger boarding groups. However, you need to make sure to notify the airlines prior to your flight so that they will be on notice to provide you with this privilege.

You might also request for the airline to give you time to become acquainted with the plane so that you can get a feel for your proximity to the lavatory and the emergency exit. (As someone with a pre-boarding disability, you won’t be allowed to sit in the emergency exit rows to prevent any potential issues).

Before your flight, it’s also a good idea to check Google Flights or your itinerary to see what type of aircraft you’ll be flying on. You can then check a website like SeatGuru to view the layout of the airplane cabin. You can memorize exactly how many seats you’ll be from the lavatory and emergency exit row and that should help you make your way through the cabin easier.

You can also request for assistance with things like snack and drink menus and request an emergency card in braille if needed.

Before embarking on your flight, there are a few things that you can do to make things easier for retrieving your luggage.

Obviously, the first thing you might want to consider is only taking a carry-on with you to avoid the hassle of picking up luggage in the first place.

Many airlines don’t impose a strict limit on the weight of your carry-on so as long as you fit your belongings in your carry-on bag and/or personal items bag (such as a small backpack) and the weight isn’t ridiculous, you won’t have to worry about checking bags.

Be on the lookout for basic economy fares though since those make you pay for carry-ons, as do some low-cost carriers, such as Frontier and Spirit.

I would suggest going with luggage that sticks out in color and that you could easily describe to someone (e.g., “the large orange bag with white stripes” or something along those lines). Or perhaps you have a special luggage tag that you know the feel of.

Another tip is to look into a “luggage locator” which allows you to set up a transmitter in your bag that beeps when you get in close proximity.

And don’t forget, the airlines will assist you with getting your luggage if needed.

As you can see, traveling through the airport and flying with a vision impairment doesn’t have to be as daunting of a task as you might think it could be. But you need to take the necessary steps to make sure things will go smoothly like seeking out assistance if needed and notating your disability on your boarding pass if needed.

Daniel Gillaspia is the Founder of UponArriving.com and the credit card app, WalletFlo . He is a former attorney turned travel expert covering destinations along with TSA, airline, and hotel policies. Since 2014, his content has been featured in publications such as National Geographic, Smithsonian Magazine, and CNBC. Read my bio .

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Last year, we launched the Nature Positive Travel & Tourism report and toolbox, closely followed by the Nature Positive Vision for Travel & Tourism. Over 150 tourism businesses, destinations, and civil society representatives registered their support, ensuring our sector was represented at the UN Biodiversity Conference (COP15) in December. Together, we showed that Travel & Tourism companies can be “Guardians of Nature”.

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Working with our partners, ANIMONDIAL, we have joined the UNWTO, the Sustainable Hospitality Alliance and others to integrate the “Nature Positive” approach throughout our sector. In 2023, we will continue to support Travel & Tourism providers to measure their impact on nature, adopt biodiversity safeguards, and seize opportunities to act. This community is still growing, and we invite more organisations to join us through signing up to our Vision.

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An eco-adventure through Puerto Rico

From bioluminescent bays to its soaring rainforest, Puerto Rico offers an abundance of natural treasures. The country is home to unique wildlife, all part of an intricate ecosystem that is as beautiful as it is fragile. Rest assured, there are ways to venture through all this in ways that can preserve, protect and nourish what you leave behind.

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Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will have completed the following objectives:

• Explain how electromagnetic waves differs from sound waves
• Trace the path of light through the eye to the point of the optic nerve
• Explain tonic activity as it is manifested in photoreceptors in the retina

Vision is the ability to detect light patterns from the outside environment and interpret them into images. Animals are bombarded with sensory information, and the sheer volume of visual information can be problematic. Fortunately, the visual systems of species have evolved to attend to the most-important stimuli. The importance of vision to humans is further substantiated by the fact that about one-third of the human cerebral cortex is dedicated to analyzing and perceiving visual information.

As with auditory stimuli, light travels in waves. The compression waves that compose sound must travel in a medium—a gas, a liquid, or a solid. In contrast, light is composed of electromagnetic waves and needs no medium; light can travel in a vacuum (Figure 1). The behavior of light can be discussed in terms of the behavior of waves and also in terms of the behavior of the fundamental unit of light—a packet of electromagnetic radiation called a photon. A glance at the electromagnetic spectrum shows that visible light for humans is just a small slice of the entire spectrum, which includes radiation that we cannot see as light because it is below the frequency of visible red light and above the frequency of visible violet light.

Certain variables are important when discussing perception of light. Wavelength (which varies inversely with frequency) manifests itself as hue. Light at the red end of the visible spectrum has longer wavelengths (and is lower frequency), while light at the violet end has shorter wavelengths (and is higher frequency). The wavelength of light is expressed in nanometers (abbreviated nm); one nanometer is one billionth of a meter. Humans perceive light that ranges between approximately 380 nm and 740 nm. Some other animals, though, can detect wavelengths outside of the human range. For example, bees see near-ultraviolet light in order to locate nectar guides on flowers, and some non-avian reptiles sense infrared light (heat that prey gives off).

Figure 1. In the electromagnetic spectrum, visible light lies between 380 nm and 740 nm. (credit: modification of work by NASA)

Wave amplitude is perceived as luminous intensity, or brightness. The standard unit of intensity of light is the candela , which is approximately the luminous intensity of a one common candle.

Light waves travel 299,792 km per second in a vacuum, (and somewhat slower in various media such as air and water), and those waves arrive at the eye as long (red), medium (green), and short (blue) waves. What is termed “white light” is light that is perceived as white by the human eye. This effect is produced by light that stimulates equally the color receptors in the human eye. The apparent color of an object is the color (or colors) that the object reflects. Thus a red object reflects the red wavelengths in mixed (white) light and absorbs all other wavelengths of light.

Anatomy of the Eye

The photoreceptive cells of the eye, where transduction of light to nervous impulses occurs, are located in the retina (shown in Figure 2) on the inner surface of the back of the eye. But light does not impinge on the retina unaltered. It passes through other layers that process it so that it can be interpreted by the retina (Figure 2b). The cornea , the front transparent layer of the eye, and the crystalline lens , a transparent convex structure behind the cornea, both refract (bend) light to focus the image on the retina. The iris , which is conspicuous as the colored part of the eye, is a circular muscular ring lying between the lens and cornea that regulates the amount of light entering the eye. In conditions of high ambient light, the iris contracts, reducing the size of the pupil at its center. In conditions of low light, the iris relaxes and the pupil enlarges.

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Figure 2. (a) The human eye is shown in cross section. (b) A blowup shows the layers of the retina.

Which of the following statements about the human eye is false?

• Rods detect color, while cones detect only shades of gray.
• When light enters the retina, it passes the ganglion cells and bipolar cells before reaching photoreceptors at the rear of the eye.
• The iris adjusts the amount of light coming into the eye.
• The cornea is a protective layer on the front of the eye.

Statement 1 is false.

The main function of the lens is to focus light on the retina and fovea centralis. The lens is dynamic, focusing and re-focusing light as the eye rests on near and far objects in the visual field. The lens is operated by muscles that stretch it flat or allow it to thicken, changing the focal length of light coming through it to focus it sharply on the retina. With age comes the loss of the flexibility of the lens, and a form of farsightedness called presbyopia results. Presbyopia occurs because the image focuses behind the retina. Presbyopia is a deficit similar to a different type of farsightedness called hyperopia caused by an eyeball that is too short. For both defects, images in the distance are clear but images nearby are blurry. Myopia (nearsightedness) occurs when an eyeball is elongated and the image focus falls in front of the retina. In this case, images in the distance are blurry but images nearby are clear.

Figure 3. Rods and cones are photoreceptors in the retina. Rods respond in low light and can detect only shades of gray. Cones respond in intense light and are responsible for color vision. (credit: modification of work by Piotr Sliwa)

There are two types of photoreceptors in the retina: rods and cones , named for their general appearance as illustrated in Figure 3. Rods are strongly photosensitive and are located in the outer edges of the retina. They detect dim light and are used primarily for peripheral and nighttime vision. Cones are weakly photosensitive and are located near the center of the retina. They respond to bright light, and their primary role is in daytime, color vision.

The fovea is the region in the center back of the eye that is responsible for acute vision. The fovea has a high density of cones. When you bring your gaze to an object to examine it intently in bright light, the eyes orient so that the object’s image falls on the fovea. However, when looking at a star in the night sky or other object in dim light, the object can be better viewed by the peripheral vision because it is the rods at the edges of the retina, rather than the cones at the center, that operate better in low light. In humans, cones far outnumber rods in the fovea.

Link to Learning

Review the anatomical structure of the eye, clicking on each part to practice identification.

Transduction of Light

The rods and cones are the site of transduction of light to a neural signal. Both rods and cones contain photopigments. In vertebrates, the main photopigment, rhodopsin , has two main parts Figure 4): an opsin, which is a membrane protein (in the form of a cluster of α-helices that span the membrane), and retinal—a molecule that absorbs light. When light hits a photoreceptor, it causes a shape change in the retinal, altering its structure from a bent ( cis ) form of the molecule to its linear ( trans ) isomer. This isomerization of retinal activates the rhodopsin, starting a cascade of events that ends with the closing of Na + channels in the membrane of the photoreceptor. Thus, unlike most other sensory neurons (which become depolarized by exposure to a stimulus) visual receptors become hyperpolarized and thus driven away from threshold (Figure 5).

Figure 4. (a) Rhodopsin, the photoreceptor in vertebrates, has two parts: the trans-membrane protein opsin, and retinal. When light strikes retinal, it changes shape from (b) a cis to a trans form. The signal is passed to a G-protein called transducin, triggering a series of downstream events.

Figure 5. When light strikes rhodopsin, the G-protein transducin is activated, which in turn activates phosphodiesterase. Phosphodiesterase converts cGMP to GMP, thereby closing sodium channels. As a result, the membrane becomes hyperpolarized. The hyperpolarized membrane does not release glutamate to the bipolar cell.

Trichromatic Coding

There are three types of cones (with different photopsins), and they differ in the wavelength to which they are most responsive, as shown in Figure 6. Some cones are maximally responsive to short light waves of 420 nm, so they are called S cones (“S” for “short”); others respond maximally to waves of 530 nm (M cones, for “medium”); a third group responds maximally to light of longer wavelengths, at 560 nm (L, or “long” cones). With only one type of cone, color vision would not be possible, and a two-cone (dichromatic) system has limitations. Primates use a three-cone (trichromatic) system, resulting in full color vision.

The color we perceive is a result of the ratio of activity of our three types of cones. The colors of the visual spectrum, running from long-wavelength light to short, are red (700 nm), orange (600 nm), yellow (565 nm), green (497 nm), blue (470 nm), indigo (450 nm), and violet (425 nm). Humans have very sensitive perception of color and can distinguish about 500 levels of brightness, 200 different hues, and 20 steps of saturation, or about 2 million distinct colors.

Figure 6. Human rod cells and the different types of cone cells each have an optimal wavelength. However, there is considerable overlap in the wavelengths of light detected.

Retinal Processing

Visual signals leave the cones and rods, travel to the bipolar cells, and then to ganglion cells. A large degree of processing of visual information occurs in the retina itself, before visual information is sent to the brain.

Photoreceptors in the retina continuously undergo tonic activity . That is, they are always slightly active even when not stimulated by light. In neurons that exhibit tonic activity, the absence of stimuli maintains a firing rate at a baseline; while some stimuli increase firing rate from the baseline, and other stimuli decrease firing rate. In the absence of light, the bipolar neurons that connect rods and cones to ganglion cells are continuously and actively inhibited by the rods and cones. Exposure of the retina to light hyperpolarizes the rods and cones and removes their inhibition of bipolar cells. The now active bipolar cells in turn stimulate the ganglion cells, which send action potentials along their axons (which leave the eye as the optic nerve). Thus, the visual system relies on change in retinal activity, rather than the absence or presence of activity, to encode visual signals for the brain. Sometimes horizontal cells carry signals from one rod or cone to other photoreceptors and to several bipolar cells. When a rod or cone stimulates a horizontal cell, the horizontal cell inhibits more distant photoreceptors and bipolar cells, creating lateral inhibition. This inhibition sharpens edges and enhances contrast in the images by making regions receiving light appear lighter and dark surroundings appear darker. Amacrine cells can distribute information from one bipolar cell to many ganglion cells.

Figure 7. View this flag to understand how retinal processing works. Stare at the center of the flag (indicated by the white dot) for 45 seconds, and then quickly look at a white background, noticing how colors appear.

You can demonstrate this using an easy demonstration to “trick” your retina and brain about the colors you are observing in your visual field. Look fixedly at Figure 7 for about 45 seconds. Then quickly shift your gaze to a sheet of blank white paper or a white wall. You should see an afterimage of the Norwegian flag in its correct colors. At this point, close your eyes for a moment, then reopen them, looking again at the white paper or wall; the afterimage of the flag should continue to appear as red, white, and blue. What causes this? According to an explanation called opponent process theory, as you gazed fixedly at the green, black, and yellow flag, your retinal ganglion cells that respond positively to green, black, and yellow increased their firing dramatically. When you shifted your gaze to the neutral white ground, these ganglion cells abruptly decreased their activity and the brain interpreted this abrupt downshift as if the ganglion cells were responding now to their “opponent” colors: red, white, and blue, respectively, in the visual field. Once the ganglion cells return to their baseline activity state, the false perception of color will disappear.

Higher Processing

The myelinated axons of ganglion cells make up the optic nerves. Within the nerves, different axons carry different qualities of the visual signal. Some axons constitute the magnocellular (big cell) pathway, which carries information about form, movement, depth, and differences in brightness. Other axons constitute the parvocellular (small cell) pathway, which carries information on color and fine detail. Some visual information projects directly back into the brain, while other information crosses to the opposite side of the brain. This crossing of optical pathways produces the distinctive optic chiasma (Greek, for “crossing”) found at the base of the brain and allows us to coordinate information from both eyes.

Once in the brain, visual information is processed in several places, and its routes reflect the complexity and importance of visual information to humans and other animals. One route takes the signals to the thalamus, which serves as the routing station for all incoming sensory impulses except olfaction. In the thalamus, the magnocellular and parvocellular distinctions remain intact, and there are different layers of the thalamus dedicated to each. When visual signals leave the thalamus, they travel to the primary visual cortex at the rear of the brain. From the visual cortex, the visual signals travel in two directions. One stream that projects to the parietal lobe, in the side of the brain, carries magnocellular (“where”) information. A second stream projects to the temporal lobe and carries both magnocellular (“where”) and parvocellular (“what”) information.

Another important visual route is a pathway from the retina to the superior colliculus in the midbrain, where eye movements are coordinated and integrated with auditory information. Finally, there is the pathway from the retina to the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) of the hypothalamus. The SCN is a cluster of cells that is considered to be the body’s internal clock, which controls our circadian (day-long) cycle. The SCN sends information to the pineal gland, which is important in sleep/wake patterns and annual cycles.

View this interactive presentation to review what you have learned about how vision functions.

Section Summary

Vision is the only photo responsive sense. Visible light travels in waves and is a very small slice of the electromagnetic radiation spectrum. Light waves differ based on their frequency (wavelength = hue) and amplitude (intensity = brightness).

In the vertebrate retina, there are two types of light receptors (photoreceptors): cones and rods. Cones, which are the source of color vision, exist in three forms—L, M, and S—and they are differentially sensitive to different wavelengths. Cones are located in the retina, along with the dim-light, achromatic receptors (rods). Cones are found in the fovea, the central region of the retina, whereas rods are found in the peripheral regions of the retina.

Visual signals travel from the eye over the axons of retinal ganglion cells, which make up the optic nerves. Ganglion cells come in several versions. Some ganglion cell axons carry information on form, movement, depth, and brightness, while other axons carry information on color and fine detail. Visual information is sent to the superior colliculi in the midbrain, where coordination of eye movements and integration of auditory information takes place. Visual information is also sent to the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) of the hypothalamus, which plays a role in the circadian cycle.

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The Importance of Visual Targeting for Driving: Scanning the Path of Travel

To make safe driving decisions and respond to roadway hazards in a timely manner, drivers must absorb a great deal of visual information, pick out important details and analyze what they have learned. Gleaning enough information from the roadway environment requires active viewing, you cannot simply stare into space ahead of your vehicle and hope to take in all necessary details.

Picking a visual target

Target area, path of travel, line of sight, active scanning.

Perception time is the length of time it takes a driver to see and understand a situation. Visibility, the condition of the driver and the roadway environment can all influence perception time. To shorten perception time and allow fast, effective responses to upcoming changes and hazards, drivers should utilize a technique known as visual targeting .

Visual targeting is the practice of focusing your attention on a stationary object which is 12 to 20 seconds ahead of your vehicle. As you move closer to your visual target , you should then select a new fixed object within that 12 to 20-second window, repeating this process continuously as you move along the roadway.

A visual target can be any object that is not going to change position as you approach it, such as a road sign, parked vehicle, tree or building. The object must be in the center of your field of vision so that focusing on it allows you to look directly ahead and absorb an equal amount of information from your left and right. Making visual targeting a habit will encourage you to scan ahead and keep your attention focused on roadway events.

The target area is the portion of the roadway where your visual target sits, including the area immediately to the left and right of the object. While focusing on your visual target, you will also be receiving and assessing information about your target area and all the space prior to it, between your vehicle and the target. As you approach your target area, look out for traffic control devices and changes in traffic flow that may require action.

When you reach your target area, choose another visual target on the roadway ahead. Targets should always be chosen based on the safest path of travel that takes you to your desired location.

Your path of travel (POT) is the stretch of roadway between you and your target area, over which you will travel as you move towards the target. While focusing on your visual target you must still be tuned-in to events and situations along your path of travel and adjust your driving behavior accordingly. For example, if a pedestrian crossing sits somewhere on your path of travel, you will need to reduce your speed and yield to pedestrians before fixing a new visual target and proceeding.

Your line of sight (LOS) is a direct line between your eyes and any object your gaze lands on. Most of the time while driving, your line of sight will be focused toward your target object. It is important to keep the line of sight between you and your target area as clear as possible. As you progress along the roadway, the situation may change so that curves in the road, the landscape, street infrastructure or another vehicle may enter your line of sight.

If your line of sight is completely cut off by an obstruction, slow down and proceed cautiously until your view of the target area is restored. If safely possible, change lanes or alter course to re-establish your line of sight.

Collecting visual information about the roadway environment and scanning ahead must be an active process. This can be a challenge for new drivers, particularly those who are accustomed to using their eyes passively while staring at a TV, tablet or computer screen.

Do not wait for information to come to you while you’re driving. Instead, train yourself to seek out information and look for dangers everywhere within your path of travel. If you practice proper visual targeting every time you drive, actively scanning the roadway will soon become a habit. Eventually, choosing a target area on the road up ahead will become completely automatic – you will not even realize you’re doing it!

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Visual Search Patterns

Knowing where to look and how long for can be confusing for new drivers, particularly when there is so much to keep track of inside your car, right in front of the vehicle and 20 seconds ahead of you on the roadway. To drive safely, you need to adopt a systematic and efficient method of visually scanning your environment.

Safe Following Distance

It is impossible to drive safely and attentively without leaving enough space between your vehicle and the car ahead of you. Maintaining an adequate following distance is crucial to maximize your view of the roadway up ahead.

The Effects of Speed

Keeping speed to a minimum is one of the best risk-reducing tactics you can employ as an attentive driver. As the speed you are traveling at increases, so too does the danger you are exposed to and the challenges you face.

The Vigilant Driver

Safe and responsible drivers attend to vital aspects of the driving environment both inside and outside the vehicle. Being attentive is more than simply being alert – though that does help! It is understanding that all aspects of the driving environment must be closely monitored and knowing how to split your attention between a variety of different targets effectively.

The Importance of Paying Attention

Your ability to fully and consistently focus your attention on the environment around your vehicle is every bit as important as your road rule knowledge and vehicle control skills. Paying attention while driving is an important skill which must not be overlooked while you’re learning to drive.

The Importance of Good Vision

No sense is more important to a driver than vision. As your eyes are responsible for 90% of the information you receive while driving, good vision is essential in making safe and appropriate driving decisions.

Vision Impairments

People with less than 20/40 vision do not qualify for an unrestricted driver’s license in most states. However, there are vast numbers of people with poorer than 20/40 vision who can drive safely and legally under a restricted license, providing they wear corrective glasses or contact lenses. Only in extreme cases of vision impairment or blindness will a person be refused a driving license altogether.

Mental Skills for Driving

The “vision, memory and understanding” trinity allows you to assess and make decisions based on all the information your eyes receive while you’re driving. If you do not receive accurate visual information due to a vision impairment, or do not have relevant memory information stored in your brain to help you make sense of what you have seen, you may not respond to roadway hazards appropriately.

Proprioception and Kinesthesia

While most of the information we receive while driving is visual, our other senses are important too. In addition to sight, our brains collect information about the world around us via hearing, smell, taste and touch.

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Line of Sight

Line of sight refers to the path you can see without an object (e.g., a hill, curve, or other vehicle) obstructing your vision. Let's say you're driving on a flat road and there's a stop sign ahead. Imagine a straight line starting with your eyes and ending with the stop sign. There is nothing blocking this imaginary "line," so you're able to clearly see the path ahead of you.

Now imagine you're driving on the same road, but there is a large truck driving directly ahead of you. Now when you look at the imaginary line, it is interrupted by the truck—your line of sight to the stop sign has been obstructed.

Field of Vision

In order to better understand line of sight, it's important to familiarize yourself with your field of vision. Field of vision is the area a driver can see while looking straight ahead. This includes central vision and peripheral vision.

Central Vision is your clear, direct sight, and it corresponds closely with your line of sight. It extends from the center of your vision out in a 10-degree cone and sends sharply focused pictures to the mind.

Peripheral vision allows you to see out of the corner of your eyes. You do not see objects in your periphery as clearly as objects in your direct line of sight, but peripheral vision does pick up movement and light. Peripheral vision is used for scanning your environment and alerts you to objects and hazards that you can turn and see with your sharper, central vision.

Drivers rely on peripheral vision to support a number of tasks while driving, such as maintaining speed and lane position and detecting potential hazards.

In your visual field, your peripheral vision could extend to about 180 degrees. However, as speed increases, your peripheral vision range narrows rapidly. This means that the faster you drive, the less you are able to distinguish objects to either side.

So, what can we do when our line of sight and field of vision is obstructed on the road?

One way is to use visual targeting, which means setting up good sightlines for referencing and good peripheral fields for seeing changes.

The first step in visual targeting is to look far down your line of sight, or look as far ahead as you can see. Usually, this area is about 20 to 30 seconds ahead of you, which gives you plenty of time to identify any potential hazards and prepare for them. Look for objects in your path of travel or the space your vehicle will occupy as you travel on the roadway. Is traffic slowing down ahead? Do you notice a car weaving recklessly in and out of traffic? Do you see a pedestrian crossing the road? Are there any potholes or debris in your lane? You may need to adjust your lane position (where you’re at in the lane) to maximize your line of sight. However, for the most part, you should remain in the center of your lane.

Next, look at the area halfway between your vehicle and the end of your line of sight. This area should be about 12 to 15 seconds ahead of you. Again, evaluate your path of travel. If you noticed a potential hazard up ahead, now’s the time to start reacting to it. Activate your brakes if you notice traffic slowing down. Switch into another lane to put some space between you and the reckless driver that you spotted.

Finally, look at the area 4 to 8 seconds ahead of you, or your immediate path of travel. The key thing to evaluate in this zone is your following interval, or how much space you have between your car and the car in front of you. You must make sure there's always enough room between you and the vehicle in front of you so you can come to a quick stop if needed.

To figure out your following interval, choose a fixed object in the distance, such as tree or post. After the car in front of you has passed that object, start counting (i.e. “one one thousand, two one thousand, three one thousand, four one thousand”). When you reach the object, stop counting. Experienced drivers should keep a following distance of about 2-3 seconds in good conditions, and novice drivers should double that.

Another thing to pay attention to in the 4 to 8 second zone is the space to the sides and rear of your vehicle (i.e., your space cushions ). If you can move freely into these spaces without colliding with another vehicle or object, or causing another driver to react quickly in response to you, then this cushion is open. If a vehicle or object is already occupying this space or if it is dangerous for you to move into this space, then this cushion is closed. You should always leave at least two spaces open in case of an emergency. It is dangerous to be blocked in on all sides.

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Travel terms, glossary, definitions and acronyms of the travel industry from A – Z. Click on a letter to see the terms and descriptions in our glossary.

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Add-collect, adjoining room.

Average Daily Rate. A hotel industry term used to calculate average hotel room rate. Equal to room revenue divided by rooms sold.

advance purchase

The advance time before travel that a fare requires a ticket to be issued, normally 3,7,14 or 21 days.

Agent Error. An incorrect entry made by a consultant during the reservation process.

AEA (see “Association of European Airlines”)

A US based travel agency that has entered into an agreement with BCD Travel to use the BCD Travel trademarks and provide travel services to customers in the affiliate’s territory.

Airlines Reporting Corporation (ARC)

An independent corporation jointly owned by most of the major United States airlines; ARC collects payments for tickets sold by travel agencies and distributes the monies to the airlines; ARC also governs appointment of travel agencies to sell domestic air transportation.

airport code

The three-letter code used by airlines and the air travel industry to identify airports around the world, e.g. LHR=London Heathrow, JFK=New York John F. Kennedy. http://www.world-airport-codes.com/

airport security check

Airport security checks are procedures and measures for screening passengers and baggage to ensure security against terrorist threats and other dangers.  Find out how to get through quickly

airport tax

Tax levied by certain airports throughout the world. In many cases this can be built into the total ticket price, although some airlines will not co-operate, thus making payable locally by the passenger.

On outbound journey’s, airside includes all those areas of the airport terminal after you have passed through passport control. On inbound journey’s, airside includes all those areas of the terminal before you pass through passport control.

A short-hop aircraft for up to 20 passengers, usually flying unscheduled services with a 200 / 500-mile range.

all-inclusive

A hotel program which usually includes all meals, snacks, beverages and activities.

A joint partnership between specified carriers which may include, but not limited to, interlining, code-sharing, joint frequent flyer program participation, and even equity participation of stock ownership.

The National Railroad Passenger Corporation, a government-subsidized corporation that operates all passenger train service in the United States.

Automatic Number Identification. A contact center term for a telephone network feature that passes that number of the phone the caller is using to the contact center, real-time.

American Plan. A hotel rate that includes breakfast and dinner, sometimes lunch.

Asia Pacific. A geographical term used interchangeably with ASPAC and often used in reference to the entire Asian market.

Advance Purchase Excursion Fare

applicable fare

The fare to be applied.

Accounts Receivable. Money which is owed by a customer to a company for products or services provided on credit.

ARC (see “Airlines Reporting Corporation”)

An eight-digit identification number issued by ARC to travel agencies who have met accreditation standards.

Arrival Unknown. An ARNK is added to a reservation when there is a break in the itinerary and continuity is not recognized; it does count as a segment when ticketing.

Around-the-world

A continuous journey circumnavigating the globe in one general west-to-east or east-to-west direction in which both the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans are crossed not more than once each.

ARR (see “Average room rate”)

Asia South Pacific. A geographic term used interchangeably with APAC.

Automated Ticket & Boarding Pass. IATA standard transportation ticket and combined boarding pass which features a magnetic strip containing passenger and journey details.

Average Ticket Price. The average price of all tickets purchased; domestic and international are sometimes calculated separately.

availability

The total number of seats allowed to be sold at a particular rate.

average room rate (ARR)

Ratio of hotel’s sales revenue to the number of occupied rooms.

back-to-back ticketing

An against-the-rules practice whereby a traveler books a return ticket nested inside another return ticket to avoid minimum stay requirements for the purpose of saving money. For example, the traveler uses the first ticket to fly from origin to destination on Monday in week 1, then he uses the second ticket to fly from destination to origin on Friday in week 1 and back to destination on Monday in week 2, and then he uses the first ticket again to fly back to origin on Friday in week 2. The normal Saturday night stay requirement is then avoided. While this will sometimes save money, most airlines do not allow this practice and doing so might result in penalties.

backtracking

Having to return to your original airport of entry in a country to make the return trip home. A time-consuming and costly procedure to overcome by arranging an op-jaw itinerary, which allows you to fly out to one point and return from another.

Carry-on-baggage and checked baggage have many restrictions. Most notable are the number and size of the baggage. Many airlines allow only 1 carry-on bag, plus one personal item (purse, back-pack, computer bag). For checked baggage restrictions and fees, refer to the carrier’s website for details.

banker’s buying rate (BBR)

Exchange rate used to convert from one currency to another; called the ‘buying rate’ because it is the rate used when banks purchase currency from an individual

banker’s selling rate (BSR)

Exchange rate used to convert from one currency to another; called the ‘buying rate’ because it is the rate used when banks sell currency to an individual

Best Available Rate. A hotel industry pricing method for yielding room rates (floating) based on demand while ensuring the best rate is presented for sale to agents, consumers.

A fare without tax.

Measurement of hotel occupency.

blackout dates

Certain dates or periods when travel on specific fares is not permitted (usually holidays).

blocked space

Multiple reservations, often subject to deposit forfeiture, which wholesalers or travel agents make with a supplier in anticipation of resale.

boarding pass

A permit to board a ship, plane, or other form of transportation. In the case of air travel, the card indicates boarding gate and aircraft seat number.

booking code

A letter code used to make an airline reservation at a particular fare level in a computerized reservation system. (CRS/GDS)

Bank Settlement Plan. Outside the USA, a system by which the travel agent community pays carriers for tickets it issues.

Business Travel Account. If a company has a corporate credit card program where certain purchases such as air, rail, and associated transaction fees are centrally billed to one “master” credit card number, this is referred to as the Business Travel Account (BTA). This account allows for the purchase of certain air travel expenses for corporate employees without the need to issue individual credit cards to each traveler for the designated expenses. Because the account has no physical card, it’s often called a “ghost card.”

BTC (see “Business Travel Center”)

Business Travel News. A travel industry publication that delivers news and research to the corporate travel population.

bucket shop

An unlicensed, unbonded travel agency used by some airlines to dispose of excess capacity seats that are available on certain flights.

buffer zone

For taxation purposes, an extension of the US border 225 miles north into Canada and 225 miles south into Mexico border; all cities within this area are assessed the 7.5% US domestic tax when tickets are purchased and sold in the US.

A net fare contract for certain number of seats. Similar to blocked space except that the tour operator, wholesaler, or travel agent usually contracts for airline seats at a low, non-commissioned price without the option of releasing space back to the airline.

A partition (usually a wall) on an airplane separating compartments.

Travel slang for the removal of a passenger from a flight through overbooking; usually applied to those holding concessionary tickets.

bundled pricing

A pricing proposal, always a transaction fee, where elements other than air (e.g. car hire, hotel, rail) are included in the fee with the air transaction.

business class

Level of airline service between First class and Economy class. On European routes business class has now replaced first class as premier service level. Most airlines have their own brand names. (e.g. British Airways – Club World and Club Europe: Air France – Le Club etc.)

Business Travel Center (BTC)

Standard full service and online service in a local call center, undedicated, team environment.

Business Travel Management

Business travel management is the process of planning, organizing, and overseeing business travel for an organization. This includes booking travel arrangements, managing expenses, and developing policies and procedures for business travel.

cancellation policy

The advance time a hotel requires a booking to be canceled by to avoid being billed for the room

carrier (CXR)

Another term for airline.

Credit Card. A system of payment whereby the issuer of the card grants a line of credit to the cardholder, to be used to make payment to a merchant or to withdraw cash.

Collision Damage Waiver. An industry term for optional insurance provided by car rental companies that eliminates all responsibility of the driver in an accident.

centralized billing

System under which a travel supplier, credit card company, agency or other supplier consolidates all costs/charges incurred by different employees or departments into one total invoice.

change of equipment

Also known as “change of gauge”. A single flight number used to represent flights on two different aircraft; usually on international destinations.

Notification to an airline or hotel that a traveler has arrived to take a flight or stay at a hotel; some airlines provide curbside check-in while others only allow check-in at the ticket counter.

Advice to a hotel that a guest is leaving the property and usually includes payment for the stay.

A traveler who has had his/her second birthday, but not yet his/her twelfth birthday (this definition may vary by carrier).

Churning refers to any repeated booking or canceling of the same itinerary in the same class or different classes of service in one or more PNRs or GDS.

circle pacific

Travel from IATA Area 1 (North and/or South America) to IATA Area 3 (Asia, Australia, South Pacific) by way of the North Pacific Ocean in one direction, via the South Pacific Ocean in the opposite direction, and at least one flight within IATA Area 3 that crosses the Equator.

circle trip (CT)

A journey from origin to destination with a return to origin in a continuous, circuitous route using two or more fare components

The orgin (from) and arrival (to) points of a trip, usually by air or train.

city terminal

Airline office, usually city center, where passengers may check-in, receive seating details and board special bus/ taxi/ helicopter/ rail/ shuttle services to the airport.

class of service

The interior of an aircraft is divided into sections, each with a different level of service and amenities; common classes of service are first, business, and economy.

Cruise Lines International Association. An association dedicated to the promotion and growth of the cruise industry.

Section of a hotel offering higher security and special facilities either for a premium payment or as an incentive/ privilege for frequent users.

club ticket

Fully flexible, redeemable business class ticket valid one year from date of issue. Phrase used primarily in the U.K.

Another term for bus.

Close of Business. A term meaning the end of the business day.

A marketing agreement between two airlines (very common amongst airlines that have an alliance) where a seat is purchased on one airline (the selling carrier), but the flight is actually operated by a different airline (the operating carrier).

combination

Two or more fares shown separately in a fare calculation.

Computerized Reservation System

System used to book and process travel reservations, also known as a Global Distribution System (GDS).

A hotel employee who attends to guests’ needs for special information, theater and restaurant reservations, and any other special requests.

connecting flight

A flight which the passenger must change aircraft.

A stop in a given city for less than 4 hours (domestic US); less than 12 hours (domestic US as part of an international journey); less than 24 hours (international); continuing on the next applicable flight to an onward destination; designated by X/ in a linear fare construction line.

conjunction ticket

Two or more tickets concurrently issued to a passenger and which together constitute a single contract of carriage.

connecting rooms

Two rooms that are side-by-side that have a common connecting interior door.

consolidation fare

A group inclusive tour fare available to travel agents and other operators to construct packages to destinations which are inclusive of accomodation. Consolidation fares, although group fares, are for sale to individual passengers.

consolidator

A person or company which forms groups to travel on charter or at group fares on scheduled flights to increase sales, earn override commissions or reduce the chance of tour cancellations.

A group of independent companies that join together to gain greater profits.

construction point

A city through which fares have been combined for the purpose of pricing an itinerary; a destination city or a turnaround point; a fare break shown on the ticket.

A contact center term for an individual who is calling or visiting your company by phone or through the website, and who is requesting an interaction with an agent.

contact center

An umbrella term that generally refers to reservations centers, help desks, information lines or customer service centers, regardless of how they are organized or what types of transactions they handle.

continental breakfast

A light breakfast of such things as coffee, pastry and sometimes juice.

contract fare / contract discount

A discounted fare agreed upon by the client and a carrier; contract fares require a client give the carrier a certain percentage of its business in all markets.

corporate fare

A discounted airfare for business travelers.

corporate rate

A special rate negotiated between a supplier (hotel or car for example) and a company.

corporate hotel rate

Learn how to get corporate hotel rates .

Corporate Travel Department (CTD)

A CTD (Corporate Travel Department) establishes a direct purchasing relationship between the company and its travel suppliers. The accrediting body, ARC (Airline Reporting Corporation) authorizes the company to function as its own “travel agency” and control it’s financial settlement.

co-terminals

A group of cities/airports considered to be the same point; example: JFK/LGA/EWR.

country of commencement (COC)

The country in which a journey begins; the base fare is converted from NUCs into the currency of the Country of Commencement by using the IATA ROE.

country of payment (COP)

The country in which a ticket is being purchased; the base fare is converted from the currency of the Country of Commencement into the currency of the country of payment using the Bank Rate if the countries are not the same.

Cost Per Mile. A calculation of the average price paid per mile.

Cost Per Transaction. A calculation of the total cost a company incurs for generating a customer transaction.

Customer Relationship Management. A term used for a database that is used to house and maintain customer information.

CRS (see “Computerized Reservation System”)

Corporate Social Responsibility . A concept whereby companies consider the impact to society and the environment of their actions.

Central Security Record. A hotel industry term for the name of the Viewership Management Table used to maintain a list of offices authorized to access a client’s negotiated hotel rates.

Central Standard Time. A time zone in the US, also known as Central Time or CT.

Corporate Travel Department. A company’s in-house travel agency that purchases air transportation and related travel services on behalf of its own employees.

Computer Telephony Integration. A contact center term for the software, hardware, and programming necessary to integrate computers and telephones so they can work together seamlessly and intelligently.

A checkpoint at which imported goods are verified for legality and value.

Data Release Authorization (DRA)

Under a DRA, Client instructs, as of the date specified, BCD Travel to receive, process, and/or transfer certain personal travel data from Client’s travelers, including, but not limited to, transactional ticket-level, segment-level, and traveler-level information, which may include, without limitation, traveler name and address, origination and destination, corporate and/or personal credit card number, passport number, drivers license, travel preferences, and other special needs or any other sensitive data as may be provided by or behalf of the travelers (“Travel Data”).

Decision Source (DS)

A BCD Travel product that allows our customers to interact with their reservation data.

delegate rate

An inclusive rate for meetings on a daily basis. Twenty-four hour delegate rate also includes accommodation. Phrase primarily used in the U.K.

denied boarding compensation (DBC)

Commonly called “bumping,” – When more passengers arrive to take a flight than can actually fit on the plane; although legal, the carrier is only responsible for providing compensation to a traveler if he/she has a confirmed reservation and is checked in and has arrived at the departure gate within a pre-determined time period; compensation may be in cash or in a voucher for future travel; passengers who voluntarily relinquish their seats are compensated with a cash payment or voucher towards a future trip and are then accommodated on the next available flight; if an airline delivers a bumped passenger to his/her destination within an hour of the originally-scheduled time, no compensation is required.

deregulation

Originally applied to American air travel: in 1978, federal law phased out the civil Aeronautics Board and stopped government intervention or regulation of airline routes and fares.

destination

The final stopping place as shown on the ticket; the furthest point on a fare component used to price an itinerary.

Destination Management Company

Company, possibly an incoming tour operator, who organizes local ground services at destination.

differential

The difference between the fares for two different classes of service between two cities; this fare construction principle is only used internationally.

direct fare

The fare for one-way or half round-trip travel visa the shortest route operated between two cities.

direct flight

A flight from origin to destination that makes one or more intermediate stops, but passengers do not change planes.

directional fare

Fare valid only in a specified direction of travel.

discount fare

Transportation fare lower than the full published tariff for an airline’s route. A discount fare usually entails certain stipulations regarding purchase or travel (space availbility).

DMC (see “Destination Management Company”)

Domestic travel.

Travel wholly within any one country; typically used to designate intra-US travel.

A hotel room with two double beds and/or accommodating 2-4 people.

double booking

The practice of making reservations for two or more flights, cars or hotels as a type of backup; considered to be unethical.

double occupancy

The way in which almost all cruise fares and tour packages are quoted, that is, based on two people traveling together. Most hotel rooms are quoted based on two adults to a room, as well.

double open jaw (DOJ)

Travel in which the outbound departure point and arrival and the inbound point of departure and arrival are not the same.

To move a passenger to a lower class of service or accommodation.

drop-off charge

A fee charged for dropping a rental car at a different location from where it was picked up.

Being exempt from any import tax.

economy class

The rear area of the aircraft in which passengers having paid one of the lower fare types are seated.

electronic miscellaneous document – Associated (EMD-A)

Document that allows for the fulfillment of all flight related services and fees (such as bags, seats, meals, etc.). An EMD or EMD-A is linked to a specific eticket coupon in the airline’s database.

electronic miscellaneous document – Standalone (EMD-S)

Non-flight related services (such as lounge access or change fee collection) a stand alone EMD, a EMD-S is issued. To issue an EMD-S a manually created service segment must be in the PNR. Specific services that can be charged on an EMD-S is dependent on the airline’s own requirements.

electronic ticket (eticket)

An airline transportation ticket that is entirely in a GDS; no physical ticket is required for travel.

EMD (see “electronic miscellaneous document”)

Endorsement.

Permission from the plating carrier, the ticketed carrier or the carrier losing air space for the traveler to use the flight coupon(s) for travel on another airline at no additional cost; usually only required for international tickets.

end-on-end combination

A special type of combination in which two round trip fares are combined to produce a complete itinerary.

In this example, the passenger buys a round trip ticket from AAA to BBB (Rule 1), and a separate round trip fare from BBB to CCC (Rule 2). The net effect is to travel from AAA to CCC, but breaking the fare at BBB, which may in some cases be less expensive than the round trip (through) fare from AAA to CCC.

equivalent fare paid

An amount converted into the currency of the country of payment when the published fare is in a currency other than that of the country of payment.

ERA (see “European Regions Airline Association”)

Eastern Standard Time. A time zone in the US, also known as Eastern Time or ET.

Electronic System for Travel Authorization. ESTA is a free, automated system that determines the eligibility of visitors to travel to the U.S. under the Visa Waiver Program. The ESTA application collects the same information collected on Form I-94W. ESTA applications may be submitted at anytime prior to travel, though it is recommended travelers apply when they begin preparing travel plans.

Estimated Time of Arrival. A measure of when an object is expected to arrive at a certain place.

Estimated Time of Departure or Delivery. The expected start time of a particular journey or the expected delivery of a good or service.

e-ticket (see “electronic ticket”)

Electronic Ticket Record.

European Regions Airline Association

Association which aims to identify, protect and promote the interests of regional air transport in Europe. Over 170 memebers including airlines, aircraft manufacturers and airports. www.eraa.org

excess baggage

Baggage in excess of the allowable number, size or weight.

The process of reissuing a ticket due to a change of flight, fare basis, dates or routing.

excursion fare

Round-trip fare with restrictions, such as minimun and maximum stays and the need to purchase well in advance.

executive card

Types of privilege cards available to frequent users of airlines, hotel chains, car rental companies, etc. Most carry benefits and have their own brand names, e.g. British Airways Executive Blue, Executive Silver, Executive Gold and Premier.

executive room

Higher grade than standard room and usually slightly larger, the executive room often has additional facilities for the business traveler such as trouser press, desk etc. and may be located on a separate Executive Club Floor.

Expatriot (or expat)

An expatriate (in abbreviated form, expat) is a person temporarily or permanently residing in a country and culture other than that of the person’s upbringing or legal residence.

explant/ outplant/ offsite

Branch office dedicated to serving a single client that is not located on the client’s premises, but rather operates as a separate part of a BTC.

familiarization tour

A complimentary or reduced-rate travel program for travel agents, airline or rail employees, which is designed to acquaint participants with specific destinations. Often known as “Fam-Trips”.

family plan

A hotel rate that allows children to stay free with adults in the same room.

A combination of letters and numbers used to identify a fare type which may also indicate the rules of the fare

fare component

A fare between two points.

fare ladder

A vertically-written fare construction that includes fare components, surcharges and additional amounts collected.

• fee – bundled air transaction fee An air transaction fee that includes the costs associated with servicing air, hotel and car transactions. Therefore, hotel and car only bookings (not to exceed XX% of air bookings) are not charged a transaction fee.
• fee – management fee Fee assessed in addition to direct costs. Covers primarily overhead and profit. Can be assessed as % of sales, per transaction or fixed amount.
• fee – management fee structure (formerly cost plus offering) Client fee arrangement whereby direct expenses are passed through to the client in addition to management fee. Management fee could be % of sales, fixed fee, or per transaction.
• fee – online booking tool fee (PNR fee) Charged per unique reserved PNR. Additional fees may be assessed for transactions booked on a website accessed via the online booking tool.
• fee – online transaction fee (e-fulfillment fee) Charged per online transaction – that excludes any ‘flow through costs’ charged by the online booking tool provider.
• fee – transaction fee structure Client fee arrangement whereby client is billed per transaction for all major program costs including direct expenses and contribution to overhead and profit, usually at POS.
• fee – unbundled (menu) transaction fee Separately charged per each type of transaction, e.g. hotel, car, rail and air. AM and MIS costs might also be charged separately.

final destination

The last point on an itinerary/fare component.

first class

The cabin on an aircraft where there are fewer seats, more elaborate service and amenities.

FIT (see “Fully Independent Traveler”)

Flag carrier.

The airline that internationally represents a given country; sometimes financed or owned by the government.

flight coupon

A section of an airline ticket; one flight coupon is required to take each flight.

flight/time specific

A fare rule that requires a to fly on a specific flight or at a specific time of day.

FOI (see “Form of Indemnity”)

Form of Payment. The method of payment for a transaction.

form of indemnity

A form that needs to be completed by the passenger in order to claim refund in respect of an air ticket that has been misplaced or stolen.

frequent flyer number

Find out what a frequent flyer number is and how to get one

frequent flyer program

An airline loyalty program that provides awards to travelers who use an airline or its partners.

frequent guest program

A hotel loyalty program that provides awards to guests who use a hotel chain.

frequent renter program

A car rental loyalty program that provides services (such as fast pickup) to those who use a car rental vendor.

front office (FO)

An industry term used for products associated with customer-facing activities. The GDS is a front office system.

fuel surcharge

A surcharge assessed for fuel use applicable for travel between specified points and/or for departure from a specified city.

Hotel rate with accommodation, breakfast, lunch and dinner included.

full economy

This is a fully flexible, fully refundable ticket which is valid for one year from date of issue in economy class.

full exchange

Change an already ticketed reservation, with no flown flight segments.

full to full exchange

Change to a ticketed reservation when no segments are flown and the change is to any segment other than the outbound flights. Or when a segment has been flown and there is a change to a remaining flight segment. In either of these instances, the FULL value of the original ticket must be exchanged for the ‘combined’ FULL value of the new ticket.

fully independent traveler

A traveler / tourist not part of a tour group.

One of the world’s CRSs (GDSs).

Area in an airport where passengers for a flight gather before boarding their flight or deplane on arrival.

gateway city

The last domestic city from which a passenger departs prior to arriving at an international destination; the first point of arrival in a given country (e.g., on the journey SFO-CHI-FRA-MUC, CHI and FRA are gateway cities).

GDS (see “ Global Distribution System “)

Gds operations (gdso).

An industry term for computer reservation systems that book and sell tickets for multiple airlines.

GEBTA (see “Guild of European Business Travel Agents)

In the credit card industry a system used by corporations whereby travel related charges made through designated travel agencies are centrally billed but no plastic card actually exists. Often referred to as “Lodge card” in Europe.

global distribution system

An industry term for computer reservation systems that book and sell tickets for multiple airlines.  Learn more

global indicator

Two-letter code used to identify the direction of travel applicable to a given fare.

governing carrier

The airline whose fares and rules are used on a given itinerary.

Greenwich Mean Time (GMT)

Solar based time in Greenwich, England, from which time in all other time zones in the world is based.

ground time

The time not flying.

A booking solution that allows the booking and managing of all ground transportation services, such as limousines, executive sedans, taxis, vans and parking services.

A fare that offers discounts to groups of varying minimum sizes in selected markets, with various conditions, and usually require round trip travel within a specified time limit.

guaranteed hotel reservations

This means that the hotel will hold the room all night. However if the room is not required, failure to cancel will result in a charge. Where reservations are made on an ad hoc basis, rather than through a regular account arrangement, a credit card number will be required to effect this guaranteed reservation.

Hotel rate for accommodation, breakfast and one other meal.

half round trip fare

Half of a fare designated for use on round-trip journeys.

Fee or tax some countries or cities levy on arriving or departing travelers.

Half of the globe; the North and South hemispheres are divided by the Equator; the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans divide the East and West hemispheres.

higher intermediate point (HIP)

A pair of cities within a one-way or half round-trip fare component that has a direct fare higher than the direct fare between the origin and destination of the fare component; this fare construction principle is only used internationally.

hotel sourcing

Hotel sourcing or procurement is the process of identifying, negotiating and contracting with hotels to secure accommodations for a specific group, event or organization.

An airport at which an airline centers many of its schedules, particularly connecting flights to smaller destinations.

(see “International Air Transport Association”)*

IATA Number (see “ARC Number”)

Iata rate of exchange (roe).

Rates of exchange designated by IATA to convert local currency to NUCs and to convert NUCs into the currency of commencement of travel.

ICAO (see “International Civil Aviation Organization”)

Interline e-ticket. An interline agreement between airlines that allow e-ticketing on each other’s flights. Interline agreement between airlines permitting travel service cooperation in areas such as: baggage transfer services, guaranteed connection times.

IGK (see “International Gatekeeper”)

Immigration.

Area at which a traveler’s documentation (e.g., Passport and Visa) are verified to ensure the traveler may enter the country.

implant (on-site)

Dedication operational team, based within an office of the client.

implementation

Phase of launching a new relationship, including e.g. opening a new location, training staff, installing technical equipment, and informing clients, travelers and travel arrangers.

inbound travelers

Travelers coming into a specified location are considered inbound. Travelers departing from the location are considered outbound.

A traveler who has not yet reached his/her second birthday.

Term used in the U.S. to describe an implant.

international departure taxes

Taxes levied on all travelers departing a country on an international journey that are, typically collected at the airport at the time of departure.

Between two airlines; TUS-HP-DEN-UA-LON is an interline journey.

interline baggage agreement

An agreement between two air carriers that a carrier will transfer baggage to the other carrier.

interline connection

When a passenger changes airlines as well as aircraft during a journey (same as off-line connection).

interline ticketing agreement

An agreement between two air carriers that permits air travel of one carrier to be on a ticket issued and/or ‘plated’ on another carrier.

intermediate point

A ticketed point of an international journey at which there is no fare break; an intermediate point may be a stopover or connection.

intermediate stop

An enroute stop at a city between the origin and destination (see also Direct Flight).

International Air Transport Association

The world trade association of international air carriers; appoints travel agencies to sell tickets; determines rules and regulations for international carriers. www.iata.org

International Civil Aviation Organization

Specialed agency of the United Nations with responsibility for civil aviation action in standardization, technical co-operation and the formulation of international aviation law. www.iaco.int

A chronological plan showing a traveler’s booked arrangement.

A special through fare (usually only internationally) that permits travel on two or more different airlines.

The origin to final destination of a fare construction.

BCD Travel provides support for KDS. KDS provides an online booking platform for the confirmation of air, car, hotel and rail itineraries.

On outbound journeys, landside includes all those areas of the terminal before you arrive at passport control. On inbound journeys, landside includes all those areas of the terminal after you’re through passport control.

last date of purchase

The date by which a ticket must be issued – fares are not guaranteed until tickets are issued.

last room availability (LRA)

A hotel industry term for ensuring a negotiated rate is always available when standard inventory is available or when the room type negotiated is available.

LDW (see “Loss Damage Waiver”)

One flight; one part of an entire journey.

Lowest Fare Routing. The least expensive airfare available to a destination.

local currency fare (LCF)

See Country Of Payment (COP).

locator reference

Unique identifying booking number used within a computer reservations system as part of a booking file.

In the credit card industry a system used by corporations whereby travel related charges made through designated travel agencies are centrally billed but no plastic card actually exists. Often referred to as “Ghost Card” in the U.S.

Loss Damage Waiver

Additional insurance pertaining to car rentals, covering theft and vandalism in addition to accident damage.

low cost carrier (LCC)

An airline that offers generally low fares in exchange for eliminating many traditional passenger services.

lowest combination principle

Construction of a fare using a particular combination of sector fares to provide the lowest fare when there is no published fare between two points.

Marine Travel

Specialized travel services, available 24/7, provides travel arrangements (including helicopters and charter aircraft) for marine personnel.

Market Number (MK)

A code all online booking tools (OBTs) add at the time each reservation is made, as a way to track PNRs for online adoption and fulfillment purposes. It should never be removed once added to the PNR.

Married Segments

Two or more connecting flight segments joined, or “married,” meaning that these segments are inseparable and the subsequent rebooking or cancellation of any one flight segment must, at the same time, be applied to the connecting flight segment.

maximum permitted mileage (MPM)

The number of miles that may be flown on a published direct fare between origin and destination; this fare construction principle is only used internationally.

maximum stay

The maximum amount of time a traveler may stay at a destination before return is required.

MCO (see “Miscellaneous Change Order”)

Meetings, Incentives and Corporate Events. An industry term for a department within a company that offers meeting planning services to customers. BCD Travel’s department is called BCD M&E

midoffice (MO)

An industry term for the management information (MIS) portion of a travel agency’s system.

mileage fare

A fare based on the total miles flown from the origin to destination; this fare construction principle is only used internationally.

mileage surcharge

A percentage of fare increase applied to a fare because the routing exceeds the maximum permitted mileage; the percentage is in 5% increments to a maximum of 25%; this fare construction principle is only used internationally.

minimum connection time

The amount of time required to change planes; varies by airport and often varies by carrier.

minimum stay

The minimum time a travel traveler must stay at a destination (or be gone ‘away from home’ internationally) before return travel can commence.

miscellaneous charge order (MCO)

An accountable document issued by a travel agency or airline as proof of payment for a specific fee (such as pet service fee) or as residual amount of an exchange (higher priced ticket exchanged for a lower priced ticket) to be used on a future purchase.

Mountain Standard Time. A time zone in the US, also known as Mountain Time or MT.

National Business Travel Association

U.S. business travel association which is a member of IBTA. www.nbta.org

NBTA (see “National Business Travel Association”)

New distribution capability. Read more

negotiated fare/rate

This is a term used by travel agents to descibe reduced airfares that have been negotiated by their air fare specialists on behalf of clients.

neutral units of construction (NUC)

An imaginary currency established by IATA that allows fares of different currencies to be added together; this fare construction principle is only used internationally.

Non Last Room Availability. A hotel industry term for restricting availability of a negotiated rate when occupancy levels are high. Negotiated room rate is not guaranteed to be available.

Net Operating Income. A financial term for the amount by which operating revenue exceeds operating expenses in a specific accounting period.

non-endorsable

This expression often appears in the endorsements box of an airline ticket and it means that the flight coupon on which the worlds appear may be used only on the services of the airline indicated.

non-refundable(NR)

A ticket issued on a fare that does not allow for a refund; most non-refundable tickets can be changed for a fee and any difference in fare.

normal fares

The full fare established for first, business, economy or an intermediate class and any other fares published designated as normal fares.

normal open jaw (NOJ)

Travel from a country and return to the same country with a surface sector at either the origin or turnaround point (single open jaw – SOJ) or at both the origin and the turnaround point (double open jaw – DOJ).

An airline passenger or hotel guest who fails to use and/or cancel a reservation.

National Transportation Safety Board. An independent US government agency that investigates accidents including aviation, highway, marine, pipelines and railroads.

OBT and OBLT (see Online Booking Tool”)

Off-airport location.

Usually a car rental office serving an airport but physically located off the airport site (and often picking up renters at the airport in buses or taxis). When the office is located on-site, the term used is on airport location.

A destination that a carrier does not serve; see also Interline.

off-line connections

When a traveler changes airlines as well as aircraft during a journey (may also be referred to as interline connection). Changes of aircraft with the same airline are known as on-line connections.

offline transaction (traditional transaction)

A transaction that initated by an agent following a call/email request by a client.

Time of year or day of the week when travel is less common.

off-line point

Airline term to describe points (areas or cities) they do not serve.

off-loading

This occurs when an airline has over-booked: that is, it has sold more seats on a particular flight than the aircraft has to offer. The passengers to be off-loaded are usually those who have paid the lowest fares. Off-loaded passengers will normally qualify for denied boarding compensation. Passengers may also be off-loaded at the captain’s discretion if they are unfit to travel due to drink, drugs, illness or for bad behavior.

BCD Travel is a re-seller of onesto. On-esto provides an online booking platform for the confirmation of air, car, hotel and rail itineraries.

Online Booking Tool

A web-based platform allowing travelers to make self-service reservations (e.g. Cliqbook, GetThere).

operating carrier

In a codeshare, the airline providing the plane, crew and ground handling services.

online or online point

On the same carrier; TUS-UA-DEN-UA-LON is an online journey.

online adoption

An account’s use of their predetermined online booking tool.

online high touch transaction

A transaction that originates via an online booking tool, but then requires more than one agent intervention (one touch).

online low touch transaction

A transacion that originates via an online booking tool, and then requires agent intervention or manual review/processing that is initated by the customer.

online transaction fee

(E-fulfillment fee) A fulfillment fee canged per online trasaction – that excludes any ‘flow through costs’ charged by the online booking tool provider.

A BCD Travel office located at/on/in a client’s location.

Term used to describe the principle of showing a client the complete cash-flow cycle, including commissions and overrides.

open date sector

Part of a journey for which no firm reservation has been made (usually owing to changeable plans on the part of the traveler) but for which the fare has been paid.

open jaw ticket

Where passengers fly out to one destination and return from another. Open jaw arrangements save backtracking and make a trip more cost effective.

Much-used term for unrestricted air services between several countries.

open ticket

A ticket valid for transportation between two points but has no specific flight reservation.

originating carrier

The first airline of a passenger’s journey and/or portion of a trip.

Other Service Information. A GDS entry that provides information to a carrier that does not require action for traveler action such as contract discount code, record locators of additional family members traveling together (TCP), age information for children/infants, etc.

Travel from the point of origin to the farthest destination.

outplant (off-site)

Dedication operational team, based within a BTC office.

overbooking

Also known as bumping. Airlines and hotels can predict, with some accuracy, how many travelers/guests will show up for previously made reservations; when more people show up than what is expected, travelers/guests are re-accommodated; see also Denied Boarding Compensation.

Abbreviations for ‘passport and visa’ used in the U.K. Some affliates have a specialist team which advises on and acquires passports/visa on behalf of their clients.

Pacific Asia Travel Association

Association which aims to promote travel to Asia Pacific. www.pata.org

PAR (see “Passenger Account Record”)

Passenger account record.

In Galileo, the profile showing passenger information.

passenger facility charges

An airport-designated surcharge to raise funds for airport expansion, renovation, operating costs, etc.

passenger name record

Record held within a CRS/GDS which gives the personal details associated with a particular booking.

An official document issued by a government to its citizens that establishes an individual’s identity and nationality and enables travel abroad.

PATA (see “Pacific Asia Travel Association”)

Abbreviation for passengers.

Payment Card Industry. Security standards set to help protect account data information.

Time of year or day of the week when travel is most common.

A fee charged by a carrier or vendor for changing and/or canceling a reservation or ticket.

Per diem is a daily allowance given to an employee to cover business travel expenses such as lodging, meals and incidentals while traveling for the company. Learn more about per diem .

Penalty excursion fare. Public excursion fare are within minimum stay requirements, but which has no advanced purchase requirements.

PIR (see “Property Irregularity Report”)

Plate / plated.

See Validating Carrier.

PMS (see “Property Management System”)

Pnr (see “passenger name record”).

Purchase Order. A commercial document issued by a buyer to a seller that indicates the quantities and agreed upon prices for products / services.

point-to-point fares

De-regulation has led to a growing number of these on routes throughout the world. They are low fares in first, business, or economy class between two points by direct flights. Stopovers are usually, but not always, prohibited.

Point of Service or Point of Sale. The time and place in which a transaction is made.

prepaid ticket advice (PTA)

A form used when a person is buying a ticket that will be issued at the airport of the same or a different city. Example: A ticket purchased in Chicago to be picked up by the traveler in and for a departure from Buenos Aires.

pre-trip auditing

A product offered by travel management companies that allows for the review of travel itineries before departure to identify savings or prevent unnecessary expenditure.

pricing unit (PU)

A journey, or part of a journey which can be priced and ticketed as a separate entity; a round-trip, circle trip, one-way, normal open jaw or special open jaw; this fare construction principle is only used internationally.

pricing unit concept (PUC)

An alternative method of fare construction for multiple-stopover journeys that uses pricing units; this fare construction principle is only used internationally.

primary carrier

Airline flying the governing sector (prime segment).

prime segment

The first “true” international journey; often called the “over-the-water” segment; see also Gateway.

A computerized file containing company and traveler information.

promotional fare

A fare designed to attract passengers who would not otherwise travel.

proof of citizenship

Documentation that establishes nationality.

property irregularity report

Form submitted by passengers to ground handling agents at airports in the event of loss or damaged baggage.

property management system

Computer-based system for controlling hotel inventory, check-in and -out and billing.

Pacific Standard Time. A time zone in the US, also known as Pacific Time or PT.

PTA (see “Pre-paid Ticket Advice”)

Public fares (air).

Fares that anyone can obtain and is available in a regular fare display.

Quality of Service Index. An index developed by the Civil Aeronautics Board to provide a comparative rating of service offered by individual airlines.

A computer’s electronic filing system. Also a contact center term for the holding point for a number of calls or interactions that are waiting to be answered by an agent. The calls or interactions are usually assigned to available agents in a first-arrived, first-answered basis, but may also be assigned based on a company’s routing strategies.

queue group

A contact center term for a group of virtual queues. Also referred to as a DN Group or Group of Queues.

The official posted rate for each hotel room.

rate desk (see “International Rate Desk”)

Rate of exchange (roe) (see “iata rate of exchange”), rearden commerce.

BCD Travel is a referrer for Rearden. Rearden provides an online booking platform for the confirmation of air, car, hotel and rail itineraries.

reason codes (RC)

An industry term for codes used to document and report on traveler decisions and behavior.

reconfirmation

Particularly on international flights, passengers are required to indicate their intention of using the next leg of their itinerary by contacting the appropriate carrier before departure; internationally, reconfirmation is requested 72 hours prior to departure.

record locator

A computerized number that identifies a Passenger Name Record – PNR or other reservation; when speaking to travelers, usually called a confirmation number.

red-eye flight

Usually an overnight flight that arrives early in the morning – great when you don’t want to lose precious sightseeing time at your destination.

If necessary for a passenger to change journey en route, the ticket must be reissued. The value of the original ticket will be offset against the new fare and any extra or refund, calculated. Settlement can be direct with airline or with referral to the issuing agent.

BCD Travel is a re-seller for ResX. ResX provides an online booking platform for the confirmation of air, car, hotel and rail itineraries.

return journey

A journey for which the fare is assessed as a single pricing unit using half round-trip fares.

revalidation

If the passenger’s travel date or flight needs to be changed, without affecting the route, there is not always a need to reissue the ticket. The relevant flight coupon is simply revalidated by means of a revalidation sticker.

Revenue Per Available Room. A hotel industry measure that calculates room revenue divided by rooms available (occupancy times average room rate will closely approximate RevPAR.)

Rate Loading Instructions. A hotel industry term for the instructions provided to hotel properties for loading client-specific or TMC-specific rate codes as displayed in the GDS.

room with facilities

Describes a hotel room which has a bathroom en-suite. In some smaller two-star or three-star hotels facilities may refer to toilet and washbasin only.

round-the-world (RTW) (see “Around-the-World”)

A trip that begins and ends in the same city with no un-flown portions; internationally, with the same dollar amount on both portions .

route deal / route incentive

An agreement between a corporate customer and an airline. The agreement allows for an incentive payment to be made to the cient by the airline as a reward for loyalty.

The carrier and/or cities and/or class of service and/or aircraft type via which transportation is provided between two points.

routing fare

A fare based on a specified routing.

run-of-the-house (ROH)

A flat rate for which a hotel offers any of its available rooms.

Schengen Visa

A special visa that permits holders to travel to any of the 25 Schengen member countries on a single visa (rather than obtaining a visa for each country. It is only issued to citizens of countries who are required to obtain a visa before entering Europe for leisure, tourism or business travel. Schengen Visa holders are not permitted to live permanently or work in Europe. The following countries are currently active Schengen Visa members: Austria, Belgium, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Slovak Republic, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland.

A specific time of year for a fare; High Season is the most popular time of year to travel to a specific destination and fares are more expensive at that time; Low Season is the least popular time of year to travel to a specific destination and fares are less expensive at that time; Fares affected by seasonality are usually indicated as such by fare basis coding and/or seasonality details listed in the fare’s rules.

The distance between aircraft seats, measured in inches and commonly used to show a passenger’s legroom.

security surcharge

Surcharge assessed by a carrier to cover costs of airport and in-flight security.

secondary carrier

Airline(s) flying the sectors preceding and/or succeeding the prime segment.

A journey from one point to another.

A flight; see Leg.

self-service reservations

Situation where the traveler makes his/her own reservations. A reservation generated by the customer using an online booking tool.

selling carrier

In a codeshare, the airline offering the flight for sale, under their vendor code

service fee

A fee charged by a travel agency to a company/individual for travel services.

Service Level Agreement

An agreement stating measurable performance commitments made to our customers.

Regular or schedulable bus/van transportation such as from an airport to a downtown location; regular air service on heavily-traveled routes (e.g., BOS-LGA).

A journey from and/or to an enroute point of a fare component.

Accommodations designed for one person.

SLA (see “Service Level Agreement”)

Designated take-off and landing times allocated to airlines at certain airports.

soft opening

Period when new hotel is open for business although not entirely finished – some services of facilities may not yet operate.

Standard Operating Procedure. A set of instructions that define the official standard for a specific process or situation.

Scope of Services. A document that defines the number, type, and intensity or complixity of services to be provided.

space available

Confirmation of a reservation subject to availability at the last moment.

special needs

Atypical traveler needs such as a special meal or wheelchair service.

split ticket(ing)

Issuance of two or more tickets usually for the purpose of obtaining a lower fare; usually applied to international itineraries to take advantage of fare and/or currency conversion differences.

Spouse fare

This type of are applies to selected destinations on a round-trip only basis and offers a discount of 50% to the spouse of a full first class or business class passenger. Economy passengers also qualify where there is no business fare.

SSR (see “Self Service Reservation”)

Special Service Request. A GDS request for a carrier to provide additional action for a traveler such as special meal, ticket number transmission, wheelchair, etc.

standard room

The normal hotel room type, generally with television, and en-suite bathroom.

A passenger on waitlist or one prepared to travel if space becomes available at the last moment.

Interruption of travel for more than domestic US – 4 hours; domestic US as part of an international journey – 12 hours; international – 24 hours .

stopover charge

An additional fee assessed for making a stopover.

STP (see “Satellite Ticket Printer”)

Any extra literature included with the delivery of travel documents.

sub-journey

A self-contained pricing unit that is combined end-on-end with another self-contained pricing unit on the same ticket; this fare construction principle is only used internationally.

surcharge (Q)

An airline-imposed fee included in fare calculations; see also Excess Mileage Surcharge, Fuel Surcharge, and Security Surcharge.

surface sector

Travel from one point or another not by air (ARNK – which stands for Arrival Not Known).

Travel 24. A BCD Travel department that services customers 24 hours a day when their normal business office is closed.

Ticket Fulfillment Location. An industry term for a virtual ticket printer that is shared by various BCD Travel ARC ticketing locations on the same GDS.

through fare

A fare applicable for transportation via an enroute city(ies) between the origin and destination of the fare that allows for intermediate points of travel.

A contract of carriage for an airline to transport a passenger from one point to another.

ticket on departure

Transportation ticket collected at the point of departure such as an airline ticket counter at an airport.

ticketed point

A city for which a flight coupon has been issued.

time and mileage rate

Car rental rate based on fixed charge for the rental period plus a charge for each kilometer or mile driven during the period of the rental.

TOD (see “Ticket on Departure”)

Tourist card.

A registration form required by certain countries indicating a traveler’s intended stay; used in lieu of a Visa and common in Latin America.

transaction

A Ticket issued; defined as all airline and rail tickets (electronic and paper) issued by BCD Travel or reserved by BCD Travel through a third party, regardless of whether the ticket is subsequently used, refunded, or voided in whole or in part. Cancellation of a reservation before a ticket is issued is not considered a transaction. Optional: Hotel and car booking made, regardless of whether or not the traveler uses the hotel or car reservation.

transaction – domestic air

Domestic – travel between two destinations that are within the same country. e.g. Frankfurt to Berlin

transaction – regional air

Regional – Travel within the same continent. e.g. Madrid to London

transaction – international air

International – Travel between two continents. e.g. New York to London

transaction – offline – traditional

A transaction that is initiated by an agent following a call/email request by a client

transaction – online high touch

Transaction – online low touch.

A transaction that originates via an online booking tool and then requires agent intervention or manual review/processing that is initiated by the customer.

transaction – online no touch

“Touchless E-fulfillment transaction” An electronic transaction entirely processed through an online booking tool and BCD central fulfillment service, without any agent intervention and where invoicing is provided via email.

A point at which the passenger changes aircraft; if the change is to/from the same carrier, it is an online transfer; if the change is to/from different carriers, it is an interline transfer.

transit lounge

An area within an airport for the sole purpose of international flight connections; travelers do not clear immigration or customs to enter the transit lounge as it is considered to be an international point.

transit point

Any stop at an intermediate point which does not fall into the definition of a stopover whether or not a change of planes is involved.

Travel Management Company

A travel management company (TMC) is a company that provides corporate travel services to businesses.

A BCD Travel umbrella brand name for our technology suite, which includes a variety of products listed below. read more

• TripSource:Active Itinerary A single point of access for traveler and travel arrangers for active and historical travel detail, including real time flight status, itinerary details, destination information and invoicing, billing and expense information.
• TripSource:Flight Alert Keeps travelers informed & productive while on the road by providing flight status information, including delays and real-time gate changes, for BCD Travel bookings.
• TripSource:Fulfillment Drive touch-less transactions with as little human intervention as possible while driving traveler contact behavior to minimize touches.
• TripSource:Portal (TSP) A comprehensive global solution to address traveler needs, travel program and corporation objectives. Arming travelers with rich content, productivity tools and critical safeguards for business travel, TripSource:Portal empowers travel programs as a centralized communications vehicle to deliver relevant, timely information and critical alerts to targeted audiences. The Portal expands traveler services while aligning program needs to drive savings, support business objectives and avoid corporate travel program risks.
• TripSource:Profile Manager (TSPM) Drives optimal data management by integrating profile management and online booking, and promoting secure web-based self-service maintenance of traveler-level detail.
• TripSource:Quality Measurement (TSQM) Ensures a means to track and manage supplier & transaction quality in addition to resolution of client concerns.
• TripSource:Rail Search (TSRS) BCD own rail booking tool for Deutsche Bahn only.
• TripSource:Ticket Tracker BCD manages and recovers committed travel dollars. Based on markets and supplier rules, BCD communicates with travelers to prevent loss of committed funds and when to apply unused funds toward future travel.
• TripSource:Trip Authorizer In response to growing concern for compliance, this module enables clients to implement pre-trip authorization requirements as well as post-ticketing compliance reporting.

Transportation Security Administration

twin for sole use

A twin-bedded reserved for sole occupency and charged out at a rate that falls between the single and double room price.

Two Factor Authentication

Also known as 2FA. Method of accessing a secure environment where a person proves their identity with two of three methods

User-Defined Interface Data. UDID remarks are standard and contain predefined reporting information such as lost hotel night reason codes, merchant billing codes or additional traveler data fields.

unlimited mileage rate

Car rental rate that covers all costs, other than insurance and petrol, for the duration of the rental, regardless of the distance driven.

Move to a better class of airline service, larger rental car or more luxurious hotel room.

validating carrier

Airline designated as the “owning” ticketed carrier; the carrier on whose “plate” the ticket is issued. The validating carrier is the carrier to which payment is submitted and is usually the first carrier on the itinerary (domestic) or the carrier on the first international flight (international). If a ticket is issued on multiple carriers or is validated on a carrier not on the itinerary, the validating carrier is responsible for payment to the other airlines on the ticket.

The process of stamping an air ticket or other airline document, at the time of issue, with the issue date, name and location of the issuing office and its IATA code number. Tickets not bearing such a stamp re invalid and will not be accepted by airlines.

value-added tax (VAT)

A general tax that applies, in principle, to all commercial activities involving the production and distribution of goods and the provision of services.

VAT reclaim

Value-added tax, or VAT, is included in hotel, dining and car rental bills and more when travelers go to countries that assess the tax. It can be a significant expense: VAT rates can be as high as 25%. The good news is most T&E-related VAT is eligible for reclaim. The bad news: In the past, it’s been hard to collect. But automation has made VAT reclaim for European Union transactions much easier. BCD Travel has partnered with VAT-recovery firm Taxeo to automate the process.

virtual credit card (VCC)

A VCC isn’t a physical card, but it has many of the same features as plastic corporate cards.

virtual payment

A virtual payment is a terminal-based payment method where the payment is delivered through a virtual card (VCC) instead of by check or cash.

An endorsement or stamp placed into a passport by officials of a foreign government giving a traveler permission to visit; not all countries require visas.

VCC (Virtual Call Center)

A network of call centers where the client calls one phone number, regardless of where they are based, that will be routed through to an available agent. For multi-national accounts this service would be multi-lingual as appropriate.

Virtual Multiple Purpose Document. A document issued by a travel agency or airline, working with BSP, as proof of payment for transactions and services, either related to an eticket already issued (example: rebooking fees) or for services other than flights (for items like surface transportation, transfers, and excess luggage charges).

A traffic document which has been spoiled or canceled.

Documents issued to confirm arrangements or used to be exchanged for services.

A list of people seeking a travel service that is sold out; generally, as other travelers cancel, waitlisted individuals are confirmed in the order in which their waitlist request was received – sometimes prioritized by frequent traveler membership.

When a hotel is sold out and there are no rooms available for a person who has a confirmed reservation, the hotel provide alternate accommodations at a different hotel.

an agreement to pay to use an aircraft with a crew , fuel, and insurance

wide-body aircraft

Aircraft with wide passenger cabins and seating configurations that require more than one aisle. Current models include Boeing 747, 777 or Airbus A380, A350

system that checks hand luggage at an airport, without damaging, for example, light-sensitive film material or laptops.

Yield Management

is a variable pricing strategy, based on understanding, anticipating and influencing consumer behavior in order to maximize revenue or profits from a fixed, time-limited resource (such as airline seats or hotel room reservations).

Zulu Time Zone (Z) has no offset from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC). Zulu Time Zone is often used in aviation and the military as another name for UTC +0. Zulu time, also known as Greenwich Mean Time (GMT), is the time zone used by the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, England. It is the basis for all other time zones in the world.

2FA, or two-factor authentication, is an extra layer of security used to protect online accounts. In addition to a password, users are also required to enter a code that is sent to their mobile device. This makes it more difficult for hackers to gain access to an account, as they would need to have both the password and the code.

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