is time travel one word or two

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Meaning of time travel in English

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• around Robin Hood's barn idiom
• communication
• public transport
• super-commuting
• transoceanic
• well travelled

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Translations of time travel.

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a computer program designed to have a conversation with a human being, usually over the internet

Searching out and tracking down: talking about finding or discovering things

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Can we time travel? A theoretical physicist provides some answers

Emeritus professor, Physics, Carleton University

Disclosure statement

Peter Watson received funding from NSERC. He is affiliated with Carleton University and a member of the Canadian Association of Physicists.

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Time travel makes regular appearances in popular culture, with innumerable time travel storylines in movies, television and literature. But it is a surprisingly old idea: one can argue that the Greek tragedy Oedipus Rex , written by Sophocles over 2,500 years ago, is the first time travel story .

But is time travel in fact possible? Given the popularity of the concept, this is a legitimate question. As a theoretical physicist, I find that there are several possible answers to this question, not all of which are contradictory.

The simplest answer is that time travel cannot be possible because if it was, we would already be doing it. One can argue that it is forbidden by the laws of physics, like the second law of thermodynamics or relativity . There are also technical challenges: it might be possible but would involve vast amounts of energy.

There is also the matter of time-travel paradoxes; we can — hypothetically — resolve these if free will is an illusion, if many worlds exist or if the past can only be witnessed but not experienced. Perhaps time travel is impossible simply because time must flow in a linear manner and we have no control over it, or perhaps time is an illusion and time travel is irrelevant.

Laws of physics

Since Albert Einstein’s theory of relativity — which describes the nature of time, space and gravity — is our most profound theory of time, we would like to think that time travel is forbidden by relativity. Unfortunately, one of his colleagues from the Institute for Advanced Study, Kurt Gödel, invented a universe in which time travel was not just possible, but the past and future were inextricably tangled.

We can actually design time machines , but most of these (in principle) successful proposals require negative energy , or negative mass, which does not seem to exist in our universe. If you drop a tennis ball of negative mass, it will fall upwards. This argument is rather unsatisfactory, since it explains why we cannot time travel in practice only by involving another idea — that of negative energy or mass — that we do not really understand.

Mathematical physicist Frank Tipler conceptualized a time machine that does not involve negative mass, but requires more energy than exists in the universe .

Time travel also violates the second law of thermodynamics , which states that entropy or randomness must always increase. Time can only move in one direction — in other words, you cannot unscramble an egg. More specifically, by travelling into the past we are going from now (a high entropy state) into the past, which must have lower entropy.

This argument originated with the English cosmologist Arthur Eddington , and is at best incomplete. Perhaps it stops you travelling into the past, but it says nothing about time travel into the future. In practice, it is just as hard for me to travel to next Thursday as it is to travel to last Thursday.

Resolving paradoxes

There is no doubt that if we could time travel freely, we run into the paradoxes. The best known is the “ grandfather paradox ”: one could hypothetically use a time machine to travel to the past and murder their grandfather before their father’s conception, thereby eliminating the possibility of their own birth. Logically, you cannot both exist and not exist.

Read more: Time travel could be possible, but only with parallel timelines

Kurt Vonnegut’s anti-war novel Slaughterhouse-Five , published in 1969, describes how to evade the grandfather paradox. If free will simply does not exist, it is not possible to kill one’s grandfather in the past, since he was not killed in the past. The novel’s protagonist, Billy Pilgrim, can only travel to other points on his world line (the timeline he exists in), but not to any other point in space-time, so he could not even contemplate killing his grandfather.

The universe in Slaughterhouse-Five is consistent with everything we know. The second law of thermodynamics works perfectly well within it and there is no conflict with relativity. But it is inconsistent with some things we believe in, like free will — you can observe the past, like watching a movie, but you cannot interfere with the actions of people in it.

Could we allow for actual modifications of the past, so that we could go back and murder our grandfather — or Hitler ? There are several multiverse theories that suppose that there are many timelines for different universes. This is also an old idea: in Charles Dickens’ A Christmas Carol , Ebeneezer Scrooge experiences two alternative timelines, one of which leads to a shameful death and the other to happiness.

Time is a river

Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius wrote that:

“ Time is like a river made up of the events which happen , and a violent stream; for as soon as a thing has been seen, it is carried away, and another comes in its place, and this will be carried away too.”

We can imagine that time does flow past every point in the universe, like a river around a rock. But it is difficult to make the idea precise. A flow is a rate of change — the flow of a river is the amount of water that passes a specific length in a given time. Hence if time is a flow, it is at the rate of one second per second, which is not a very useful insight.

Theoretical physicist Stephen Hawking suggested that a “ chronology protection conjecture ” must exist, an as-yet-unknown physical principle that forbids time travel. Hawking’s concept originates from the idea that we cannot know what goes on inside a black hole, because we cannot get information out of it. But this argument is redundant: we cannot time travel because we cannot time travel!

Researchers are investigating a more fundamental theory, where time and space “emerge” from something else. This is referred to as quantum gravity , but unfortunately it does not exist yet.

So is time travel possible? Probably not, but we don’t know for sure!

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Is Time Travel Possible?

We all travel in time! We travel one year in time between birthdays, for example. And we are all traveling in time at approximately the same speed: 1 second per second.

We typically experience time at one second per second. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech

NASA's space telescopes also give us a way to look back in time. Telescopes help us see stars and galaxies that are very far away . It takes a long time for the light from faraway galaxies to reach us. So, when we look into the sky with a telescope, we are seeing what those stars and galaxies looked like a very long time ago.

However, when we think of the phrase "time travel," we are usually thinking of traveling faster than 1 second per second. That kind of time travel sounds like something you'd only see in movies or science fiction books. Could it be real? Science says yes!

This image from the Hubble Space Telescope shows galaxies that are very far away as they existed a very long time ago. Credit: NASA, ESA and R. Thompson (Univ. Arizona)

How do we know that time travel is possible?

More than 100 years ago, a famous scientist named Albert Einstein came up with an idea about how time works. He called it relativity. This theory says that time and space are linked together. Einstein also said our universe has a speed limit: nothing can travel faster than the speed of light (186,000 miles per second).

Einstein's theory of relativity says that space and time are linked together. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech

What does this mean for time travel? Well, according to this theory, the faster you travel, the slower you experience time. Scientists have done some experiments to show that this is true.

For example, there was an experiment that used two clocks set to the exact same time. One clock stayed on Earth, while the other flew in an airplane (going in the same direction Earth rotates).

After the airplane flew around the world, scientists compared the two clocks. The clock on the fast-moving airplane was slightly behind the clock on the ground. So, the clock on the airplane was traveling slightly slower in time than 1 second per second.

Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech

Can we use time travel in everyday life?

We can't use a time machine to travel hundreds of years into the past or future. That kind of time travel only happens in books and movies. But the math of time travel does affect the things we use every day.

For example, we use GPS satellites to help us figure out how to get to new places. (Check out our video about how GPS satellites work .) NASA scientists also use a high-accuracy version of GPS to keep track of where satellites are in space. But did you know that GPS relies on time-travel calculations to help you get around town?

GPS satellites orbit around Earth very quickly at about 8,700 miles (14,000 kilometers) per hour. This slows down GPS satellite clocks by a small fraction of a second (similar to the airplane example above).

GPS satellites orbit around Earth at about 8,700 miles (14,000 kilometers) per hour. Credit: GPS.gov

However, the satellites are also orbiting Earth about 12,550 miles (20,200 km) above the surface. This actually speeds up GPS satellite clocks by a slighter larger fraction of a second.

Here's how: Einstein's theory also says that gravity curves space and time, causing the passage of time to slow down. High up where the satellites orbit, Earth's gravity is much weaker. This causes the clocks on GPS satellites to run faster than clocks on the ground.

The combined result is that the clocks on GPS satellites experience time at a rate slightly faster than 1 second per second. Luckily, scientists can use math to correct these differences in time.

If scientists didn't correct the GPS clocks, there would be big problems. GPS satellites wouldn't be able to correctly calculate their position or yours. The errors would add up to a few miles each day, which is a big deal. GPS maps might think your home is nowhere near where it actually is!

In Summary:

Yes, time travel is indeed a real thing. But it's not quite what you've probably seen in the movies. Under certain conditions, it is possible to experience time passing at a different rate than 1 second per second. And there are important reasons why we need to understand this real-world form of time travel.

If you liked this, you may like:

April 26, 2023

Is Time Travel Possible?

The laws of physics allow time travel. So why haven’t people become chronological hoppers?

By Sarah Scoles

yuanyuan yan/Getty Images

In the movies, time travelers typically step inside a machine and—poof—disappear. They then reappear instantaneously among cowboys, knights or dinosaurs. What these films show is basically time teleportation .

Scientists don’t think this conception is likely in the real world, but they also don’t relegate time travel to the crackpot realm. In fact, the laws of physics might allow chronological hopping, but the devil is in the details.

Time traveling to the near future is easy: you’re doing it right now at a rate of one second per second, and physicists say that rate can change. According to Einstein’s special theory of relativity, time’s flow depends on how fast you’re moving. The quicker you travel, the slower seconds pass. And according to Einstein’s general theory of relativity , gravity also affects clocks: the more forceful the gravity nearby, the slower time goes.

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“Near massive bodies—near the surface of neutron stars or even at the surface of the Earth, although it’s a tiny effect—time runs slower than it does far away,” says Dave Goldberg, a cosmologist at Drexel University.

If a person were to hang out near the edge of a black hole , where gravity is prodigious, Goldberg says, only a few hours might pass for them while 1,000 years went by for someone on Earth. If the person who was near the black hole returned to this planet, they would have effectively traveled to the future. “That is a real effect,” he says. “That is completely uncontroversial.”

Going backward in time gets thorny, though (thornier than getting ripped to shreds inside a black hole). Scientists have come up with a few ways it might be possible, and they have been aware of time travel paradoxes in general relativity for decades. Fabio Costa, a physicist at the Nordic Institute for Theoretical Physics, notes that an early solution with time travel began with a scenario written in the 1920s. That idea involved massive long cylinder that spun fast in the manner of straw rolled between your palms and that twisted spacetime along with it. The understanding that this object could act as a time machine allowing one to travel to the past only happened in the 1970s, a few decades after scientists had discovered a phenomenon called “closed timelike curves.”

“A closed timelike curve describes the trajectory of a hypothetical observer that, while always traveling forward in time from their own perspective, at some point finds themselves at the same place and time where they started, creating a loop,” Costa says. “This is possible in a region of spacetime that, warped by gravity, loops into itself.”

“Einstein read [about closed timelike curves] and was very disturbed by this idea,” he adds. The phenomenon nevertheless spurred later research.

Science began to take time travel seriously in the 1980s. In 1990, for instance, Russian physicist Igor Novikov and American physicist Kip Thorne collaborated on a research paper about closed time-like curves. “They started to study not only how one could try to build a time machine but also how it would work,” Costa says.

Just as importantly, though, they investigated the problems with time travel. What if, for instance, you tossed a billiard ball into a time machine, and it traveled to the past and then collided with its past self in a way that meant its present self could never enter the time machine? “That looks like a paradox,” Costa says.

Since the 1990s, he says, there’s been on-and-off interest in the topic yet no big breakthrough. The field isn’t very active today, in part because every proposed model of a time machine has problems. “It has some attractive features, possibly some potential, but then when one starts to sort of unravel the details, there ends up being some kind of a roadblock,” says Gaurav Khanna of the University of Rhode Island.

For instance, most time travel models require negative mass —and hence negative energy because, as Albert Einstein revealed when he discovered E = mc 2 , mass and energy are one and the same. In theory, at least, just as an electric charge can be positive or negative, so can mass—though no one’s ever found an example of negative mass. Why does time travel depend on such exotic matter? In many cases, it is needed to hold open a wormhole—a tunnel in spacetime predicted by general relativity that connects one point in the cosmos to another.

Without negative mass, gravity would cause this tunnel to collapse. “You can think of it as counteracting the positive mass or energy that wants to traverse the wormhole,” Goldberg says.

Khanna and Goldberg concur that it’s unlikely matter with negative mass even exists, although Khanna notes that some quantum phenomena show promise, for instance, for negative energy on very small scales. But that would be “nowhere close to the scale that would be needed” for a realistic time machine, he says.

These challenges explain why Khanna initially discouraged Caroline Mallary, then his graduate student at the University of Massachusetts Dartmouth, from doing a time travel project. Mallary and Khanna went forward anyway and came up with a theoretical time machine that didn’t require negative mass. In its simplistic form, Mallary’s idea involves two parallel cars, each made of regular matter. If you leave one parked and zoom the other with extreme acceleration, a closed timelike curve will form between them.

Easy, right? But while Mallary’s model gets rid of the need for negative matter, it adds another hurdle: it requires infinite density inside the cars for them to affect spacetime in a way that would be useful for time travel. Infinite density can be found inside a black hole, where gravity is so intense that it squishes matter into a mind-bogglingly small space called a singularity. In the model, each of the cars needs to contain such a singularity. “One of the reasons that there's not a lot of active research on this sort of thing is because of these constraints,” Mallary says.

Other researchers have created models of time travel that involve a wormhole, or a tunnel in spacetime from one point in the cosmos to another. “It's sort of a shortcut through the universe,” Goldberg says. Imagine accelerating one end of the wormhole to near the speed of light and then sending it back to where it came from. “Those two sides are no longer synced,” he says. “One is in the past; one is in the future.” Walk between them, and you’re time traveling.

You could accomplish something similar by moving one end of the wormhole near a big gravitational field—such as a black hole—while keeping the other end near a smaller gravitational force. In that way, time would slow down on the big gravity side, essentially allowing a particle or some other chunk of mass to reside in the past relative to the other side of the wormhole.

Making a wormhole requires pesky negative mass and energy, however. A wormhole created from normal mass would collapse because of gravity. “Most designs tend to have some similar sorts of issues,” Goldberg says. They’re theoretically possible, but there’s currently no feasible way to make them, kind of like a good-tasting pizza with no calories.

And maybe the problem is not just that we don’t know how to make time travel machines but also that it’s not possible to do so except on microscopic scales—a belief held by the late physicist Stephen Hawking. He proposed the chronology protection conjecture: The universe doesn’t allow time travel because it doesn’t allow alterations to the past. “It seems there is a chronology protection agency, which prevents the appearance of closed timelike curves and so makes the universe safe for historians,” Hawking wrote in a 1992 paper in Physical Review D .

Part of his reasoning involved the paradoxes time travel would create such as the aforementioned situation with a billiard ball and its more famous counterpart, the grandfather paradox : If you go back in time and kill your grandfather before he has children, you can’t be born, and therefore you can’t time travel, and therefore you couldn’t have killed your grandfather. And yet there you are.

Those complications are what interests Massachusetts Institute of Technology philosopher Agustin Rayo, however, because the paradoxes don’t just call causality and chronology into question. They also make free will seem suspect. If physics says you can go back in time, then why can’t you kill your grandfather? “What stops you?” he says. Are you not free?

Rayo suspects that time travel is consistent with free will, though. “What’s past is past,” he says. “So if, in fact, my grandfather survived long enough to have children, traveling back in time isn’t going to change that. Why will I fail if I try? I don’t know because I don’t have enough information about the past. What I do know is that I’ll fail somehow.”

If you went to kill your grandfather, in other words, you’d perhaps slip on a banana en route or miss the bus. “It's not like you would find some special force compelling you not to do it,” Costa says. “You would fail to do it for perfectly mundane reasons.”

In 2020 Costa worked with Germain Tobar, then his undergraduate student at the University of Queensland in Australia, on the math that would underlie a similar idea: that time travel is possible without paradoxes and with freedom of choice.

Goldberg agrees with them in a way. “I definitely fall into the category of [thinking that] if there is time travel, it will be constructed in such a way that it produces one self-consistent view of history,” he says. “Because that seems to be the way that all the rest of our physical laws are constructed.”

No one knows what the future of time travel to the past will hold. And so far, no time travelers have come to tell us about it.

One Word Or Two? The 50 Most Common Mistakes

Kieron Moore

Kieron Moore is a writer, script editor and filmmaker living in Manchester, England. As part of the Eleven Writing team, his specialisms include video editing and how to correctly use an apostrophe. He can be found on Twitter at @KieronMoore, usually when he’s meant to be writing.

Do you often get confused whether you should write a term as one word or two? Don't worry–you're not alone. This is one of the most common mistakes in the English language.

But whether you're a writer or a trainee editor, these simple mistakes can make you look unprofessional and even lose clients or job opportunities. To help you avoid these errors, we've created this extensive guide on whether you should write a phrase in one or two words.

Here are 50 common examples that can cause confusion.

Is “a lot” one word or two?

“A lot” should always be spelled as two words. “Alot” is a common misspelling. For example:

Ben makes a lot of grammar mistakes.

It’s not to be confused with “allot,” a verb meaning to allocate or set aside.

Is “after school” one word or two?

Use the hyphenated “after-school” if the phrase is used as an adjective, or two words as an adverbial phrase. For example:

Basketball training is an after-school activity.

Polly plays basketball after school.

Is “anymore” one word or two?

The two-word phrase “any more” refers to quantities, while the single word “anymore” is an adverb that refers to time. For example:

Are there any more chips?

I never eat chips anymore.

Is “anytime” one word or two?

The two-word form “any time” is always correct, as either a quantity or an adverb. The single word “anytime,” however, can work as an adverb. For example:

I don’t have any time to relax.

You can call me anytime.

Is “apart” one word or two?

“Apart” is an adverb denoting separation, whereas “a part” is a noun phrase referring to a section of a whole. For example:

The couple spends a lot of time apart.

The dog is a part of the family.

Is “awhile” one word or two?

“A while” is a noun phrase referring to an unspecified period of time. “Awhile” is an adverb that works like a contracted form of the phrase “for a while”. For example:

It will take a while for the train to arrive.

I have been waiting awhile for the train.

Is “backyard” one word or two?

If an adjective, use the single word “backyard”. As a noun, either “backyard” or the two-word “back yard” is acceptable, though two words is typically favored. For example:

Tariq is hosting a backyard barbecue.

Tariq is hosting a barbecue in his back yard.

Is “cannot” one word or two?

“Cannot” is almost always correct in formal writing, though informally you can also use the contraction “can’t”.

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The exception is the rare case when “not” is part of a separate phrase like “not only,” in which case “can not” would be correct. For example:

Chloe cannot bake cakes.

Nell can not only bake cakes, she can bake pies, too.

Is “cell phone” one word or two?

“Cell phone” is always two words, whether as a noun or an adjective. For example:

Ed spends too much time on his cell phone.

Apple is a popular cell phone manufacturer.

Is “childcare” one word or two?

“Childcare” is typically written as one word when it’s a noun, though “child care” is an acceptable variant. Similarly, when it’s an adjective, “childcare” is the prevalent form, though some writers use “child care” or “child-care.” For example:

The college offers excellent childcare.

The au pair has excellent childcare experience.

Is “cyber security” one word or two?

As it’s a relatively recent addition to the language, sources differ on whether “cybersecurity” is one word or two. But the Associated Press mandates it as a single word, so “cybersecurity” is the best spelling to go with, whether it’s a noun or an adjective. For example:

The company takes cybersecurity seriously.

Hackers pose a serious cybersecurity risk.

Is “daycare” one word or two?

Though the single-word “daycare” is occasionally used, the two-word “day care” is the more common spelling, and the one endorsed by the Associated Press. For example:

The hospital provides day care.

The day care facilities are impressive.

Is “each other” one word or two?

“Each other” is a pronoun phrase that is always written as two words. “Eachother” is incorrect. For example:

Our dogs enjoy chasing each other.

Is “everyday” one word or two?

“Everyday” can be one word if an adjective, or two words as an adverbial phrase. For example:

Making grammar mistakes is an everyday activity.

I brush my teeth every day.

Is “everytime” one word or two?

Though similar compound words such as “everywhere” and “everyone” have become common, “everytime” is incorrect. The two-word “every time” should be used in all contexts. For example:

Every time we touch, I feel this static.

Jade’s team wins against Hope’s every time.

Is “follow up” one word or two?

“Follow up” is two words as a verb. As a noun or adjective, use the hyphenated “follow-up.” For example:

I want to follow up on our previous conversation.

So, I am sending this follow-up email.

Is “good morning” one word or two?

“Good morning” is a two-word greeting phrase. Writing it as one word—“goodmorning”—is never correct. For example:

After waking up, Amy said good morning to Rory.

Is “goodnight” one word or two?

The greeting said to someone at the end of the day is usually written “goodnight,” though “good night” is also sometimes used.

“Good night” can also be a phrase composed of an adjective and noun to describe a particular night, in which case it should always be two words. For example:

Damon said goodnight to Chloe before he went to bed.

Hannah had a good night with her friends.

Is “healthcare” one word or two?

Though “healthcare” is the correct form in British English, and is becoming more common elsewhere, in the US and Canada, the two-word “health care” is still the prevalent spelling, in both noun and adjective forms. For example:

The hospital provides excellent health care.

Linda used to be a health care worker.

Is “high school” one word or two?

“High school” is always a two-word phrase, whether used as a noun or an adjective. The one-word “highschool” is never correct. For example:

My children are both in high school.

The old friends shared high school memories.

Is “homeschool” one word or two?

Though some sources write it as two words, the single word “homeschool” is the prevalent form and the one favored by Merriam-Webster, for both noun and verb forms. For example:

Peter’s children are enjoying homeschool.

Peter is not enjoying having to homeschool the children.

Is “hometown” one word or two?

“Hometown” is a single word noun in American English. For example:

Jodie returned to her hometown.

However, note that in British English, “home town” is correct.

Is “into” one word or two?

“Into” is a preposition used when one subject goes within an object, or to denote transformation. For example:

Mo put the letter into an envelope.

The frog turned into a prince.

“In” and “to” are both prepositions in their own right and sometimes appear next to each other. For example:

Neil dropped in to pick up his mail.

Here, “in” is part of the verb phrase “drop in” and “to” is part of Neil’s objective, “to pick up his mail;” therefore, they are separate words.

Is “lifecycle” one word or two?

Though the single-word “lifecycle” is occasionally seen, the noun phrase “life cycle” is the more prevalent form. For example:

Infancy is part of every animal’s life cycle.

Is “nevermind” one word or two?

As a phrase telling someone to disregard a matter, “never mind” should always be written as two words.

The single word “nevermind” is only correct as a noun meaning attention or notice, in the rarely used phrase “no nevermind.” For example:

Never mind the coffee, I’ll stick to juice.

If they irritate you, pay them no nevermind.

Is “night time” one word or two?

Though the hyphenated form “night-time” is sometimes used, the single word “nighttime” is preferred by dictionaries, including Merriam-Webster. For example:

Owls can be heard during the nighttime.

Is “no one” one word or two?

Though similar phrases such as “nobody” and “someone” have become compound words, “no one” is still the prevalent form in this case. “Noone” is never correct, perhaps because it looks like it should rhyme with “moon.” For example:

Thankfully, no one was hurt in the accident.

Is “onto” one word or two?

“Onto” is a preposition meaning “on top of” or “to a position on;” or it can mean “to become informed about.” For example:

The cat jumped onto the bed.

The police are onto the gang.

“On to,” however, is used when “on” is part of a verb phrase, such as:

You need a password to log on to the website.

In this case, “on” is part of the verb phrase “log on,” so is a separate word from “to.”

Is “rockstar” one word or two?

Most dictionaries, including Merriam-Webster, agree that the noun phrase “rock star” should always be written as two words. For example:

My favorite rock star is David Bowie.

Is “seatbelt” one word or two?

There is some disagreement between sources as to whether it should be written “seat belt” or “seatbelt,” but the two-word option is more prevalent and is favored by Merriam-Webster. For example:

Make sure your seat belt is on before we start driving.

Is “set up” one word or two?

If it is a noun, the one-word “setup” is correct. As a verb, use the two-word phrase “set up.” For example:

Zoe has finished the setup of her new iPad.

Jamie hasn’t begun to set up his computer.

Is “sign up” one word or two?

“Sign up” is a two-word verb phrase. For the noun or adjective derived from it, use the hyphenated spelling “sign-up.” For example:

Rose wants to sign up to join the class.

Martha writes her name on the sign-up sheet.

Is “skill set” one word or two?

Most dictionaries agree that “skill set” is the preferred spelling, and the one-word “skillset” is incorrect. For example:

The employer saw that Katarina had the necessary skill set for the job.

Is “smartphone” one word or two?

When the term came into our language, it was first written as “smart phone”. However, it has quickly become a compound word, and today “smartphone” is much more prevalent. For example:

My new smartphone can record video in 4K.

Is “spellcheck” one word or two?

This is seen written as both “spellcheck” and “spell-check”, but the single-word form is most common, whether as a noun or a verb. For example:

Bill ran a spellcheck on the essay before submitting.

Writers should always spellcheck their work.

Is “summertime” one word or two?

The single word “summertime” is most common in American English, though in British English, “summer time” is acceptable. For example:

Mel enjoys visiting the beach in the summertime.

Is “teamwork” one word or two?

The noun “teamwork” is always spelled as a single word. For example:

Graham and Ryan showed good teamwork by getting the job done together.

Is “thank you” one word or two?

The verb phrase “thank you” is always written as two words. “Thankyou” is incorrect. For example:

Thank you, Victoria, for taking the time to see me.

Is “throughout” one word or two?

The word “throughout,” meaning during the whole course of, is always one word, never two. For example:

Adric remained irritating throughout his life.

Is “timeframe” one word or two?

Both Merriam-Webster and the Associated Press agree that the two-word “time frame” is preferable to “timeframe.” For example:

We have a tight time frame to get this project finished.

Is “timeline” one word or two?

According to Merriam-Webster, “time line” refers to a list of events that happened in history, whereas a “timeline” is a more general term for a schedule of events. However, “timeline” is becoming more prevalent in all contexts, and is usually a safe choice. For example:

Ian planned a timeline of events for the evening.

Is “timesheet” one word or two?

Though “timesheet” is used by some sources, the two-word “time sheet” is more prevalent and is favored by Merriam-Webster. For example:

Yaz logged ten hours of overtime on her time sheet.

Is “trashcan” one word or two?

The two-word noun phrase “trash can” is preferred over “trashcan” by most dictionaries, including Merriam-Webster. For example:

Donna put the packaging from her sandwich into the trash can.

Is “waitlist” one word or two?

If it’s a noun, use the one-word “waitlist.” If it’s a verb, use the hyphenated “wait-list.” For example:

Ask Jack if you want to be put on the waitlist.

Ask Jack if you want him to wait-list you.

Is “website” one word or two?

“Website” should always be one word. The prevalent form used to be “web site” in the 1990s, but this has fallen out of use. For example:

Clive regularly updates his website.

Is “wellbeing” one word or two?

In American English, the prevalent spelling is “well-being,” with a hyphen. For example:

Healthy food and regular exercise are essential for your well-being.

Note, however, that “wellbeing” is the more common spelling in British and Australian English.

Is yourself one word or two?

“Yourself” is one word, similar to “herself” and “myself.” “Your self” is incorrect. For example:

Before you can love another, you must learn to love yourself.

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time-travel verb

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What does the verb time-travel mean?

There is one meaning in OED's entry for the verb time-travel . See ‘Meaning & use’ for definition, usage, and quotation evidence.

How common is the verb time-travel ?

How is the verb time-travel pronounced, british english, u.s. english, where does the verb time-travel come from.

Earliest known use

The earliest known use of the verb time-travel is in the 1930s.

OED's earliest evidence for time-travel is from 1937, in the writing of F. H. Brabant.

time-travel is formed within English, by compounding.

Etymons: time n. , travel v.

Nearby entries

• time-taker, n. 1576–
• time-taking, adj. 1839–
• time-taper, n. 1810–18
• time-taught, adj. 1758–1859
• time term, n. 1878–
• time-tested, adj. 1821–
• time thrust, n. 1771–
• time ticket, n. 1840–
• time train, n. 1853–
• time travel, n. 1914–
• time-travel, v. 1937–
• time traveller | time traveler, n. 1894–
• time travelling | time traveling, n. 1894–
• time-travelling | time-traveling, adj. 1871–
• time trial, n. 1857–
• time trialist, n. 1939–
• time trialling, n. 1953–
• time triangle, n. 1920–
• time-tried, adj. 1780–
• time value, n. 1848–
• time variation, n. 1847–

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Meaning & use

Pronunciation, entry history for time-travel, v..

Originally published as part of the entry for time, n., int., & conj.

time-travel, v. was revised in March 2012.

time-travel, v. was last modified in July 2023.

oed.com is a living text, updated every three months. Modifications may include:

• further revisions to definitions, pronunciation, etymology, headwords, variant spellings, quotations, and dates;
• new senses, phrases, and quotations.

Revisions and additions of this kind were last incorporated into time-travel, v. in July 2023.

Earlier versions of this entry were published in:

A Supplement to the OED, Volume IV (1986)

• Find out more

OED Second Edition (1989)

• View time, n. in OED Second Edition

Please submit your feedback for time-travel, v.

Please include your email address if you are happy to be contacted about your feedback. OUP will not use this email address for any other purpose.

Citation details

Factsheet for time-travel, v., browse entry.

Travelling or Traveling: What’s the Difference?

Home » Travelling or Traveling: What’s the Difference?

Are you taking a trip anytime soon? If so, where will you be traveling? Or is it travelling? How exactly do you spell this word?

The two words traveling and travelling can cause some confusion for those writers not exactly sure when to use which one. Are they just variations of the same word? Do they have different meanings? Do they function differently in a sentence?

In today’s post, I want to address all of these questions so you will never again wonder or second-guess yourself, “Is it travelling or traveling?”

The Difference Between Travelling and Traveling

Travelling and traveling are both verbs, obviously. To travel is to go from one place to another, as on a trip or journey. For example,

• When the traveling pub is taken off a trailer and put together in a lot near Milwaukee and California avenues, it will boast 400 feet of bar space. – Chicago Sun Times
• They travelled 5,000 miles from Myanmar to place a plaque in Seagrim’s native village of Whissonsett in eastern England. – Washington Post
• Under that analysis, completion of the mobility plan would result in about 35 million miles per day being traveled on L.A. surface streets in 2035. – L.A. Times

You’re probably still thinking, “Okay, I still don’t know how to use these words.”

The difference between traveling vs. travelling isn’t much of a difference at all, really.

In fact, the difference between them is entirely dialectal. There is no demonstrable difference of sense or function, meaning both words can be used interchangeably.

When to Use Travelling

Even though the only thing separating travelling and traveling is a dialectical difference, it is still important to keep your audience in mind when picking which word to use and when.

Travelling (with two Ls) is the preferred spelling in British English and is used much more frequently than is traveling . The graph below shows the use of travelling vs. traveling (as a percentage of all words used) in British English books, journals, and magazines from 1800 to 2008.

As you can see, travelling (with two Ls) clearly dominates in British English, being used at a rate of about 4:1.

Now, if we look at the same two words over the same time period but limit our search to American print sources, the results completely flip.

There’s actually a bigger gap between traveling and travelling in American English than there is in British English.

When to Use Traveling

As indicated in the above graph, traveled (with one L) is the preferred spelling in American English.

I’ve discussed the reason for the popularity of many shortened spellings in American English in other posts ( cancelled/canceled comes to mind ), but the basic reason stems back to Noah Webster himself.

He is usually credited with the shortening of many American spellings because in his original 1898 dictionary, he sought to simplify many British spellings he saw as unnecessary. This is where the British-American divide over words like color/colour came from.

Anyway, the point is, if you are writing to an American audience, traveling (with one L) is your best choice.

Remember the Difference – Traveling or Travelling?

One simple way to keep track of these two words is that the shorter spelling is American. If you can keep in mind that, generally speaking, British English favors (favours) the longer spelling of words, you will be able to remember the difference between these words.

It is also worthwhile to note that all of the distinctions in this post apply equally to travelled vs. traveled, traveled vs. travelled, traveller vs. traveler, traveler vs. traveller, etc.

Summary – Traveling vs. Travelling

Is it traveling or travelling? That depends on where you are writing and who is your audience.

• Travelling is the preferred spelling in British English.
• Traveling is the preferred spelling in American English.

Whether you’re talking about travelled or traveled or traveller or traveler, these same preferences still apply.

Is it ‘traveling’ or ‘travelling’?

What to Know When it comes to spelling the forms of the verb travel , traveled and traveling are more common in the U.S., and travelled and travelling are dominant everywhere else.

Spelling is typically clear-cut in modern English: forty unfailingly betrays four ; the sweet treat after dinner is spelled dessert , not desert .

But some words have two forms that appear often enough in edited text to make it clear that something else is going on. And so it is with forms of the verb travel : traveled and travelled , and traveling and travelling .

It might have a different spelling wherever you're going.

One or Two L 's?

If you look at where the single l forms originate and where the double l forms originate a pattern emerges: in the United States, traveled and traveling predominate, and everywhere else travelled and travelling are preferred.

The reason mostly comes down to one man we at Merriam-Webster hold especially dear: Noah Webster. Our lexicographical father (brothers George and Charles Merriam bought the rights to Noah Webster’s 1841 dictionary after Webster died) was a great believer in spelling reform and wanted English spelling to make more sense—and if the English of his homeland had more logic to it than its British parent, so much the better. He decided that travel needed only one l in its past and present participle forms.

Webster’s logic is the reason behind the spelling of canceled and cancelled as well: in the U.S., they have just one l , but elsewhere two l ’s are the norm.

American English Words that Use 2 L 's

Webster didn’t think all double l ’s needed to be reduced to one, however: in cases in which the accent, or emphasis, is on the syllable with the l , two l ’s are preserved: expelled and expelling ; controlled and controlling ; patrolled and patrolling .

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Give Merriam Webster the Year You Were Born and They’ll Give You the Hot New Words From Then

Merriam-Webster is giving us all one more way to judge just how much we’ve aged with a new “time traveler” engine on the dictionary brand’s website. Just plug in your birth year, and they’ll show you all the words that were first used in print that year. It’s worth noting that the “First Known Use Date” that they’re going with doesn’t, of course, take into account how long a word was already accepted as part of the spoken vernacular. Rather, it’s based on when it was first published in a print story, journal, article or similar.

All dictionary word entries have notes identifying their origins; many of our words date back to the Old English or Middle English periods. But we’re now in the Modern English period, which goes back to 1500. And thanks to Merriam-Webster’s impressively-organized time traveling engine, we can identify the exact evolution of language year to year.

Most Popular from TIME

While it’s fun to see just what was popping up in language when you were born — “bestie” in 1991, anyone? — it’s also interesting to jump back even further to track our English development. For instance, at the turn of the 20th century words like “tote bag,” “never-never land” and “milk chocolate” entered the dictionary. Move up to 1950 and “Big Brotherism,” “mug shot” and “multimedia” enter the conversation. More recent years have far fewer entries; the only addition to our vocabulary in 2015 was apparently “ aquafaba ,” the liquid that results when beans are cooked in water.

Their portal goes back to the 13th century and before, so you can also check out plenty of older entries.

Merriam-Webster’s latest tool has caught the attention of the internet, where people are eager to share the results of their own birth year word discoveries. Language often influences the way we perceive our world, after all; it’s worth paying attention to the ways our views were shaped by the verbal era we entered.

"website" WOW MERRIAM WEBSTER I HAVE NEVER FELT OLDER. https://t.co/dAlCst8P04 — Eric Stern (@EricWStern) October 25, 2018

good year @MerriamWebster pic.twitter.com/caYlSqTuMe — the slunch (@PenisWright) October 26, 2018

Enjoying this selection of words from my birth year on the @MerriamWebster Time Traveler... "air quotes" https://t.co/YnJtkndLyg pic.twitter.com/jEAexCNURR — Imogen Ruth (@ImogenRH) October 26, 2018

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Write to Raisa Bruner at [email protected]

Timeframe, Time frame, or Time-frame?

“Time frame” has a few different spelling variations that people get confused about. In some cases, it seems like it’s one or two words, while in others, it is hyphenated. This article will provide the definitive answer for you!

Time frame vs. Time-frame vs. Timeframe

“Time frame” is the correct spelling, and it should always be split into two words. “Time” and “frame” are both individually defined and recognized, so it’s best to avoid grouping them because it doesn’t change the meanings of either word in any way.

According to Google Ngram Viewer , “time frame” is the most popular choice. It’s the one that is used most across the English language. However, you might notice that “timeframe” as a single-word spelling is also somewhat popular on the graph.

In The Cambridge Dictionary and the Oxford Dictionary, “time frame” is the recognized spelling. Both dictionaries choose to define with two words to show that it should always be written in this form whenever you need to use it.

While both dictionaries define it as two words, they also make a point to show that “time-frame” and “timeframe” are both valid. The Cambridge Dictionary highlights both variations as correct by saying “also timeframe or time-frame.”

Therefore, it’s mainly down to personal preference which of the three spelling variations you think works best for you. Since all three are recognized in some manner, you can choose which one looks the most appealing.

Is “Timeframe” One Word?

“Timeframe” isn’t typically spelled as one word. However, it’s still a popular spelling variation, so there isn’t anything wrong with using it in this manner. If you do write it as one word, no native speaker is going to call you out for poor English or grammar.

While you might not want to group the words, we still have to respect the acknowledgments in the dictionaries.

The following examples might help you with it:

• What is the timeframe that we should go by before we can expect this?
• I need to know the timeframe now! I can’t keep waiting around.
• Is there a timeframe on this product or not?
• Have you figured out the timeframe yet? I’m growing increasingly impatient!

Is “Time frame” Two Words?

“Time frame” is the most suitable spelling choice. It’s the officially recognized spelling variation, which means you should try and stick to writing it as two words whenever you can. It’s known as a phrasal noun in this form because it’s made of more than one word.

As we’ve said, most of the spelling variations come down to personal preference. If you prefer the look or flow of “timeframe” as one word, there’s nothing stopping you from using it.

However, conventional English rules teach us that “time frame” is your best bet if you want to remain as grammatically correct as possible.

Why not check out some examples to help you:

• I thought you would have a suitable time frame to go by.
• You need to put a time frame on this because I’m tired of waiting around.
• Let’s hear what the time frame is because we need to get it sorted quickly.
• Is there any notable time frame you can get this done by?

Is “Time-frame” Hyphenated?

“Time-frame” is rarely hyphenated. Again, it’s acknowledged in English dictionaries, so there’s nothing wrong with it, but it’s not the best choice. You should try and avoid hyphens in this form because they are best used when working with adjectives.

Since “time-frame” is a noun and not an adjective, you’re better off keeping the hyphen out of it.

However, since it’s still a recognized variation, we’ll still provide some examples of it:

• The time-frame was off by a fraction of a second.
• You need to get your time-frame sorted out if you want to hit deadlines.
• Is there a specific time-frame you want to work through?
• Where is the time-frame listed again?

Is “Frame” Capitalized In The Word “Time-Frame”?

While “time-frame” isn’t a common spelling, you still might use it. If you do, you don’t need to worry about capitalizing it since it’s not a proper noun. However, if you write it in a title, you may want to capitalize “time” and “frame” to help you keep your style.

Martin holds a Master’s degree in Finance and International Business. He has six years of experience in professional communication with clients, executives, and colleagues. Furthermore, he has teaching experience from Aarhus University. Martin has been featured as an expert in communication and teaching on Forbes and Shopify. Read more about Martin here .

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This Mother's Day, share a heartfelt message with these 30 quotes about mothers

Celebrating mothers and motherhood has been a tradition for centuries, even before Mother's Day was officially created. It dates back to  the ancient Greeks and Romans who held festivals for Rhea and Cybele, the mother goddesses, the History Channel reports. Today, the holiday continues to honor mothers and mother figures.

While you might think that you show your mother love for everything she does throughout the year, the second Sunday in May serves as another chance to do so. And how you display your gratitude could vary depending on your love language .

If you're a fan of words of affirmation, here are some quotes to share – or write on a card – this Mother's Day.

Making a bouquet? Here are what flowers are safe v. toxic for cats.

Mother's Day, motherhood quotes

• "I realized when you look at your mother, you are looking at the purest love you will ever know." – Mitch Albom , "For One More Day"
• "Mama was my greatest teacher, a teacher of compassion, love and fearlessness. If love is sweet as a flower, then my mother is that sweet flower of love." – Stevie Wonder
• "A mother is your first friend, your best friend, your forever friend." – Amit Kalantri , "Wealth of Words"
• "Mother's love is peace. It need not be acquired, it need not be deserved." – Erich Fromm
• "Mother is a verb. It's something you do. Not just who you are." – Cheryl Lacey Donovan , "The Ministry of Motherhood"
• "Acceptance, tolerance, bravery, compassion. These are the things my mom taught me." – Lady Gaga
• "A mother's love is patient and forgiving when all others are forsaking, it never fails or falters, even though the heart is breaking." – Helen Rice
• "A mother's love is more beautiful than any fresh flower." – Debasish Mridha
• "When your mother asks, 'Do you want a piece of advice?' it's a mere formality. It doesn't matter if you answer yes or no. You're going to get it anyway." – Erma Bombeck
• "All that I am or ever hope to be, I owe to my angel mother." – President Abraham Lincoln
• "I wondered if my smile was as big as hers. Maybe as big. But not as beautiful." – Benjamin Alire Sáenz , "Aristotle and Dante Discover the Secrets of the Universe"
• "Sometimes the strength of motherhood is greater than natural laws." – Barbara Kingsolver , "Homeland and Other Stories"
• "A mother is she who can take the place of all others but whose place no one else can take." – Gaspard Mermillod
• "I can imagine no heroism greater than motherhood." –   Lance Conrad , "The Price of Creation"
• "To describe my mother would be to write about a hurricane in its perfect power. Or the climbing, falling colors of a rainbow." – Maya Angelou
• "A mother's arms are more comforting than anyone else's." – Princess Diana
• "My mother is my root, my foundation. She planted the seed that I base my life on, and that is the belief that the ability to achieve starts in your mind." – Michael Jordan
• "There's no way to be a perfect mother and a million ways to be a good one." – Jill Churchill
• "Being a mother is an attitude, not a biological relation." – Robert A. Heinlein , "Have Space Suit—Will Travel"
• "Mothers and their children are in a category all their own. There's no bond so strong in the entire world. No love so instantaneous and forgiving." – Gail Tsukiyama , "Dreaming Water"
• "When you are a mother, you are never really alone in your thoughts. You are connected to your child and to all those who touch your lives. A mother always has to think twice, once for herself and once for her child." – Sophia Loren
• "Once you’re a mom, you’re always a mom. It’s like riding a bike, you never forget." – Taraji P. Henson
• "The world, we'd discovered, doesn't love you like your family loves you." – Louis Zamperini
• "The woman who is my best friend, my teacher, my everything: Mom." – Sandra Vischer , "Unliving the Dream"
• "Mothers possess a power beyond that of a king on his throne." – Mabel Hale
• "The influence of a mother in the lives of her children is beyond calculation." – James E. Faust
• "But behind all your stories is always your mother's story, because hers is where yours begins." – Mitch Albom , "For One More Day"
• "My mother sacrificed her dreams so I could dream." – Rupi Kaur
• "Mother's arms are made of tenderness, and sweet sleep blesses the child who lies within." – Victor Hugo
• "No language can express the power and beauty and heroism of a mother’s love." – Edwin Hubbel Chapin

Looking for inspiration? 50 positive quotes for peak motivation

Just Curious for more? We've got you covered

USA TODAY is exploring the questions you and others ask every day. From " Who was the oldest Golden Girl? " to " What is the smallest country? " to " What's May's birthstone? " − we're striving to find answers to the most common questions you ask every day. Head to our  Just Curious section  to see what else we can answer.

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4 Common Types of Team Conflict — and How to Resolve Them

• Randall S. Peterson,
• Priti Pradhan Shah,
• Amanda J. Ferguson,
• Stephen L. Jones

Advice backed by three decades of research into thousands of team conflicts around the world.

Managers spend 20% of their time on average managing team conflict. Over the past three decades, the authors have studied thousands of team conflicts around the world and have identified four common patterns of team conflict. The first occurs when conflict revolves around a single member of a team (20-25% of team conflicts). The second is when two members of a team disagree (the most common team conflict at 35%). The third is when two subgroups in a team are at odds (20-25%). The fourth is when all members of a team are disagreeing in a whole-team conflict (less than 15%). The authors suggest strategies to tailor a conflict resolution approach for each type, so that managers can address conflict as close to its origin as possible.

If you have ever managed a team or worked on one, you know that conflict within a team is as inevitable as it is distracting. Many managers avoid dealing with conflict in their team where possible, hoping reasonable people can work it out. Despite this, research shows that managers spend upwards of 20% of their time on average managing conflict.

• Randall S. Peterson is the academic director of the Leadership Institute and a professor of organizational behavior at London Business School. He teaches leadership on the School’s Senior Executive and Accelerated Development Program.
• PS Priti Pradhan Shah is a professor in the Department of Work and Organization at the Carlson School of Management at the University of Minnesota. She teaches negotiation in the School’s Executive Education and MBA Programs.
• AF Amanda J. Ferguson  is an associate professor of Management at Northern Illinois University. She teaches Organizational Behavior and Leading Teams in the School’s MBA programs.
• SJ Stephen L. Jones is an associate professor of Management at the University of Washington Bothell. He teaches Organizational and Strategic Management at the MBA level.

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Michelin Guide awards stars to 18 restaurants in Mexico, including 1 with a SoCal tie

F or the first time in its 124-year history, Michelin has announced a restaurant guide for Mexico . The inaugural directory awarded 18 stars to restaurants in Baja California, Los Cabos, Mexico City, Nuevo Léon Oaxaca and Quintana Roo — 16 spots nabbed one star and two restaurants received two stars.

Two Mexico restaurants, lauded by Michelin at a ceremony in Mexico City this week, have chefs who also operate spots in Southern California — Carlos Gaytán, whose HA’ in Quintana Roo received one star, and Roberto Alcocer, whose Malva in Baja California landed on the recommended restaurants list.

SEE ALSO: 3 Michelin Star dishes you should try on the Paseo menu at Downtown Disney

“I am deeply grateful to God, my family, and my team for the incredible culinary projects we have undertaken, which have allowed me to earn a Michelin star in the United States and now in my birth country, Mexico,” said Gaytán, in a written statement. “Achieving this would not be possible without the teamwork and dedication behind our great restaurants, previously with Mexique and now with HA’. This recognition is a testament to our passion and commitment to excellence.”

A trio of new restaurant concepts featuring cuisine by chef Carlos Gaytán ( Paseo , Centrico and Tiendit) opened in May at Downtown Disney . Gaytan previously was awarded a Michelin star for his Chicago restaurant Mexique in 2013, becoming the first Mexican-born chef to receive the honor.

Six eateries were given green-star status (issued to places demonstrating sustainable and eco-friendly practices); 42 restaurants landed on the Bib Gourmand list, a rating that recognizes establishments that serve good food at reasonable prices; and 97 places earned recommended restaurant status.

No restaurant received three stars, the celestial guide’s highest honor.

“It’s a huge honor because we have been working so hard for the last 11 years,” said Alcocer, whose Malva opened in 2013. “While it wasn’t what we were expecting, we are still pleased. I can compared both places and think, ‘Malva has better food, but the service at Valle is better,’ but both places are great and I’m happy.”

SEE ALSO: Chef Roberto Alcocer of Valle talks Oceanside, Michelin stars, and what makes Mexican food so great

Alcocer’s Valle in Oceanside earned its first one-star rating from the celestial guide in 2023.

“Mexico is a really rich country gastronomically-speaking,” added Alcocer. “When something like Michelin comes to Mexico, it helps validate to the world what we’re doing, even though they didn’t do the whole country.”

Taquería El Califa de León, located in Mexico City, has the distinction of being the first taqueria ever to win a Michelin sparkler, earning one star. “This humble taqueria in Mexico City’s San Rafael neighborhood has been in business for more than 70 years, and for good reason. They’re best known for their signature gaonera taco, an item our Michelin Inspectors took special note of during their multiple visits,” noted the Michelin Guide in its review .

Michelin Guide inspectors follow the following criteria when assessing restaurant for inclusion: The quality of ingredients, mastery of cooking techniques, harmony of flavors, personality of the chef as expressed in the dining experience and consistency both across the entire menu and over time. Michelin Tire created the first Michelin Guide in 1900 with the goal of creating a demand for automobiles, and thus a need for more Michelin tires.

Following are the restaurants that received stars from Michelin Guide Mexico 2024:

• Pujol, Mexico City
• Quintonil, Mexico City

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• Animalón, Baja California
• Conchas de Piedra, Baja California
• Damiana, Baja California
• Cocina de Autor Los Cabos, Baja California Sur
• Em, Mexico City
• Esquina Común, Mexico City
• Rosetta, Mexico City
• Sud 777, Mexico City
• Taquería El Califa de León, Mexico City
• KOLI Cocina de Origen, Nuevo León
• Pangea, Nuevo León
• Levadura de Olla Restaurante, Oaxaca
• Los Danzantes Oaxaca, Oaxaca
• Cocina de Autor Riviera Maya, Quintana Roo
• HA’, Quintana Roo
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• 13 May 2024

Brain-reading device is best yet at decoding ‘internal speech’

• Miryam Naddaf

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Illustration showing the supramarginal gyrus (orange), a region of the brain involved in speech. Credit: My Box/Alamy

Scientists have developed brain implants that can decode internal speech — identifying words that two people spoke in their minds without moving their lips or making a sound.

Although the technology is at an early stage — it was shown to work with only a handful of words, and not phrases or sentences — it could have clinical applications in future.

Similar brain–computer interface (BCI) devices, which translate signals in the brain into text, have reached speeds of 62–78 words per minute for some people . But these technologies were trained to interpret speech that is at least partly vocalized or mimed.

The latest study — published in Nature Human Behaviour on 13 May 1 — is the first to decode words spoken entirely internally, by recording signals from individual neurons in the brain in real time.

“It's probably the most advanced study so far on decoding imagined speech,” says Silvia Marchesotti, a neuroengineer at the University of Geneva, Switzerland.

“This technology would be particularly useful for people that have no means of movement any more,” says study co-author Sarah Wandelt, a neural engineer who was at the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena at the time the research was done. “For instance, we can think about a condition like locked-in syndrome.”

Mind-reading tech

The researchers implanted arrays of tiny electrodes in the brains of two people with spinal-cord injuries. They placed the devices in the supramarginal gyrus (SMG), a region of the brain that had not been previously explored in speech-decoding BCIs.

Figuring out the best places in the brain to implant BCIs is one of the key challenges for decoding internal speech, says Marchesotti. The authors decided to measure the activity of neurons in the SMG on the basis of previous studies showing that this part of the brain is active in subvocal speech and in tasks such as deciding whether words rhyme.

Two weeks after the participants were implanted with microelectrode arrays in their left SMG, the researchers began collecting data. They trained the BCI on six words (battlefield, cowboy, python, spoon, swimming and telephone) and two meaningless pseudowords (nifzig and bindip). “The point here was to see if meaning was necessary for representation,” says Wandelt.

The rise of brain-reading technology: what you need to know

Over three days, the team asked each participant to imagine speaking the words shown on a screen and repeated this process several times for each word. The BCI then combined measurements of the participants’ brain activity with a computer model to predict their internal speech in real time.

For the first participant, the BCI captured distinct neural signals for all of the words and was able to identify them with 79% accuracy. But the decoding accuracy was only 23% for the second participant, who showed preferential representation for ‘spoon’ and ‘swimming’ and had fewer neurons that were uniquely active for each word. “It's possible that different sub-areas in the supramarginal gyrus are more, or less, involved in the process,” says Wandelt.

Christian Herff, a computational neuroscientist at Maastricht University in the Netherlands, thinks these results might highlight the different ways in which people process internal speech. “Previous studies showed that there are different abilities in performing the imagined task and also different BCI control abilities,” adds Marchesotti.

The authors also found that 82–85% of neurons that were active during internal speech were also active when the participants vocalized the words. But some neurons were active only during internal speech, or responded differently to specific words in the different tasks.

Although the study represents significant progress in decoding internal speech, clinical applications are still a long way off, and many questions remain unanswered.

“The problem with internal speech is we don't know what’s happening and how is it processed,” says Herff. For example, researchers have not been able to determine whether the brain represents internal speech phonetically (by sound) or semantically (by meaning). “What I think we need are larger vocabularies” for the experiments, says Herff.

Marchesotti also wonders whether the technology can be generalized to people who have lost the ability to speak, given that the two study participants are able to talk and have intact brain speech areas. “This is one of the things that I think in the future can be addressed,” she says.

The next step for the team will be to test whether the BCI can distinguish between the letters of the alphabet. “We could maybe have an internal speech speller, which would then really help patients to spell words,” says Wandelt.

doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-024-01424-7

Wandelt, S. K. et al. Nature Hum. Behav . https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-024-01867-y (2024).

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