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The Best Travel Adapters

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Best Overall Ceptics World International Travel Plug Adapter Read more

Upgrade Pick Zendure Passport III Read more

Budget Pick Epicka Universal Travel Adapter Read more

Best Travel Adapter Set Ceptics Adapter Plug Set for Worldwide International Travel Read more

Whether you’re planning a country-hopping odyssey or a quick business trip, your journey will go more smoothly with the right kit. That includes good travel adapters so you can safely charge all of your gadgets wherever you land. We’ve tested several, and our favorites below will work in most parts of the world.

Adapters make great gifts for travelers , and be sure to check out our roundup of other travel essentials if you’re a frequent flier. Don't forget to pack USB-C charging cables .

Updated May 2024: We added the Satechi 4-Port GaN Travel Charger, Anker MagGo 3-in-1 Charging Station, and Ceptics 2000W Travel Voltage Converter, added a new tips section, photos, and updated prices.

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Best Overall

Jet off to more than 200 countries with this compact adapter in your luggage, and you can charge up all your gadgets. The classic slider design pushes out EU, UK, and US plugs, and you can rotate the pins for sockets in Australia and China. I appreciate how securely the plugs lock into place, and you must press a side button to retract them. You have a universal input socket, and Ceptics has included three USB-A ports on the bottom and two USB-C ports on the side. The USB-A ports can deliver a maximum charging rate of 15.5 watts, while the USB-C ports offer up to 18 watts (one PD and one QC 3.0).

The main problem is the lack of any grounding, which is meant to reduce the risk of an electrical shock if there's a fault, such as a loose wire inside a device with a metal case. ( This video explains grounding really well. ) Thankfully, there's overload protection with an 8-amp fuse, and it comes with a spare, but you should not use this adapter with any device that has a third metal ground pin on its plug.

Upgrade Pick

Zendure's all-in-one travel adapter is what I toss in my bag first for every trip. It has a boxy design with sliding toggles to switch between US, European, and British plugs. (It covers more than 200 countries.) There’s an auto-resetting fuse to protect your gadgets from power surges, and the Passport III has a 10-amp limit. The latest version also sports a funky, translucent design with a metallic finish (purple is best). Sadly, there's no grounding, so you shouldn't use this adapter with any device that has a third metal grounding pin on its plug.

There are four USB-C ports alongside a single USB-A port and an AC socket, so you can charge six devices simultaneously. Using gallium nitride technology, Zendure was able to increase the power output of the USB-C port to 65 watts, capable of fully charging a 13-inch MacBook Pro in under two hours. That means you can leave your laptop's charging brick behind (if it charges via USB-C). There’s support for the Power Delivery (PD) and Programmable Power Supply (PPS) standards (Samsung uses PPS in its flagship range), so it can fast-charge almost any phone or tablet. This travel adapter will satisfy even the most gadget-laden of travelers.

★ A Good Alternative : The OneWorld 65 ($69) sports a very similar design, the same 65-watt charging rate, and support for more than 200 countries. But it has three USB-C and two USB-A ports. It comes in white and has a 10-amp fuse with a replacement included. WIRED readers can also get a discount with the code OneWorld65_15%Off .

Budget Pick

With the capability to work in more than 150 countries, this affordable adapter from Epicka will do the job for most people. It has sliders you push to reveal the three most common international plugs—EU, UK, and US—and you can rotate the pins for sockets in Australia or China. This plug can recharge your power-hungry devices, like laptops and camera batteries, but there are four USB-A ports on the bottom and a 15-watt USB-C port on the side for phones, tablets, smartwatches, and Kindles. It’s not as well constructed as our other universal adapter picks, but it's much cheaper.

Once again, there’s no grounding here, so don’t plug devices with a third metal ground pin into this adapter, but there is an 8-amp fuse for safety, and it comes with a spare. It is also certified by RoHS, CE, and FCC.

Best Travel Adapter Set

Universal adapters don't always work properly everywhere, and most do not have any grounding. The cheaper and more reliable alternative is to buy individual adapters. This international set from Ceptics is our favorite. It includes five types to cover most of the globe, and they are properly grounded. If you’re visiting only a single destination, just pack the relevant type. None of these adapters have any kind of USB ports, so you will need to bring the respective charging adapter for your gadgets.

This set is especially good for Europe, because it includes Type C, E/F, and G adapters (more on this below), so you’re covered for any socket. Ceptics offers an even cheaper and smaller five-piece set, but we don’t recommend it. The adapters are flimsy, there’s no grounding, and the European plug's design doesn’t work well with the recessed sockets you will sometimes encounter.The drawback of plug adapters is that they’re easy to lose, but at least Ceptics includes a small bag for storage.

Extra Outlets

What I love about this sturdy, compact plug adapter is the lack of sliding pins or moving parts to worry about and that it stays put in the outlet. Offered in several versions (Type C, Type E/F, Type G), it enables you to charge up to six gadgets. I’ve been testing the Type G model in Scotland, and it plugs into a single outlet to give you three US outlets, a USB-C port, and two USB-A ports. The USB-C can put out up to 15 watts, and the USB-A ports are limited to 12 watts, not especially speedy but fine for overnight charging. The adapter is grounded and has various safety features.

On the downside, it can be tough to make use of all the outlets simultaneously as larger plugs, like the MacBook power adapter, tend to block one of the other US outlets. It does not offer surge protection, and the Type G adapter maxes out at 3,250 watts (250 volts, 13 amps), while the EU versions top out at 2,500 watts.

For Charging Everything

This kit includes multiple plug attachments that slide and lock into place to keep you powered across most of the world. It is much larger than the average adapter, but provides two grounded US AC outlets. There is also a built-in USB-C cable, two USB-A ports, and two USB-C ports. The USB-A ports and built-in USB-C cable offer a combined maximum charging rate of 15 watts. The PD USB-C ports go up to 20 watts each. The top charging rate for all of them simultaneously is 55 watts.

There is built-in surge protection, but this is not a voltage converter, so don’t go plugging in hair dryers or other electronics that are not dual voltage. While the two AC outlets are handy, they are close together, so the shape and size of some plugs can make it tricky to use both. But with the ability to charge up to seven devices, this kit is handy. We also like the original Ceptics World Travel Adapter Kit ($35) , though it lacks the two USB-C ports.

Fast Charging

With a familiar sliding pin design, this adapter also covers more than 200 countries. Taller and heavier than our top pick, this is OneAdaptr’s most powerful release to date, and it employs gallium nitride technology to deliver up to 100 watts. Aside from the universal AC outlet, you will find two USB-C ports and two USB-A ports on the bottom. Both USB-C ports offer 100-watt charging, and both USB-A ports are 18 watts, but 100 watts is the maximum in total, so when you plug in multiple devices, it divides between them.

Almost every charging standard you can think of is supported, including PD 3.0, QC 4+, FCP, SCP, AFC, PPS, and more, so there’s a good chance you can charge your phone at the fastest rate possible. There is no grounding, so don’t plug in any gadget with a third metal pin. But there is a 10-amp fuse with a spare included, and this adapter conforms to IEC 60884, CE, and FCC standards. If you want more power or feel you can make do with less, we also tested and liked the OneWorld135 ($109) and the OneWorld30 ($39) .

Note : We have tested OneAdaptr’s range extensively and found they work well, but the company has had issues fulfilling orders, and we are concerned about the volume of negative reviews online. The company assured us that it has recently taken steps to improve fulfilment and customer service, and we will continue to monitor the situation.

Safest Option

The OneWorld PD has sliding toggles on the side that cover the US/Canada, the UK, and Australia/China, and you can pop out a much smaller stand-alone European adapter. It promises to work in more than 150 countries. There are three USB-A ports on the bottom as well as a USB-C port that supports Power Delivery and Quick Charge 3.0 to deliver up to 18 watts. That's enough to fast-charge most phones and tablets, not so much a laptop. You can plug in your laptop's AC charger to speedily juice it back up, but that means carrying the heavy charging brick around.

What sets the AC plugs apart is that each one is earthed. Most universal travel adapters offer two-pin US plugs and make the third pin on the UK plug plastic, but the OneWorld PD provides fully grounded connections for every plug type to protect you from the risk of shock due to faulty wiring. It can handle up to 10 amps. Over-current protection automatically shuts down the power if there’s abnormal usage, and it resets via a button on the top. The rare British Standard 8546 compliance guarantees that the OneWorld PD has been fully tested and is one of the safest travel adapters you can buy. The downside? It's frequently out of stock.

Note : We have tested OneAdaptr's range extensively and found they work well, but the company has had issues fulfilling orders and we are concerned about the volume of negative reviews online. The company assured us that it has recently taken steps to improve fulfilment and customer service and we will continue to monitor the situation.

For Wired Charging

Most of us only take small gadgets when we travel, so a compact, multi-port wall charger, like this one from Satechi, could be the best way to pack light. It plugs directly into the wall and comes with four interchangeable travel adapters, covering the EU, UK, and Australia, with a mesh bag to store them in. There are four USB-C ports that you can plug your gadgets into, including laptops like the MacBook Pro, tablets, phones, and wearables. With support for Power Delivery 3.1, the first two ports can supply up to 140 watts, and the bottom two ports can supply up to 45 watts, but the total maximum output if you use all four ports simultaneously is 145 watts.

We took this on a recent trip for a wedding, and it kept all of our gadgets topped off. The adapters are very easy to slide on with a quick-release switch, and it was a real space saver. The only downside is that the bulk and weight may prove awkward at some outlets.

For Wireless Charging

A few of the best wireless chargers can be good choices for travel. This modular system from RapidX is compact and capable of wirelessly charging two phones at up to 10 watts each, which makes it a good option for couples or families. The beauty is that you can add or remove pods, and a single charging cable can power up to five. They snap together magnetically and pull apart for easy packing. You can also get additional phone pods ($13) , and there’s a version with a phone pod and an Apple Watch pod ($30) .

You get a 30-watt US power adapter and a 5-foot USB-C cable in the box, so you will still want a travel adapter to pair with this system. If you plan to add pods, you will want a more powerful adapter. (RapidX recommends 65 watts or above for three or more devices.)

For Apple and Qi2 Devices

Incredibly compact when folded flat, Anker’s MagGo 3-in-1 can charge up your iPhone or Qi2-certified phone at up to 15 watts, has a second pad for AirPods or other wireless earbuds, and sports a fold-out Apple Watch charger. You get a USB-C cable (around 5 feet) and a wall adapter with it, but pair it with something like the Zendure or Satechi above that can provide at least 40 watts, and you can leave the wall adapter at home. Only MagSafe iPhones and Qi2-certified Android phones have the magnets needed to use this as a stand, but I had no trouble charging an older Android phone by folding it flat (Qi2 is backward compatible). We recommend this Anker charger for travelers in our guide to the  best Apple 3-in-1 wireless chargers .

International Plug Types and Universal Adapters

There are 15 plug types in use across the world. Type A and Type B are used in the US, Canada, Mexico, and Japan; Type C is common across Europe, South America, and Asia; Type E and Type F are found across Europe in places like Germany, Russia, and France; Type G is used in the United Kingdom, Ireland, and a handful of other places; and Type I is used in Australia, New Zealand, China, and Argentina. Universal adapters tend to cover all of these types.

Some countries are not usually covered by universal adapters, such as India ( Type D ), Israel ( Type H ), and South Africa ( Type M or N ). You'll need to buy specific plug adapters for those places. To avoid any surprises when you land, double-check what type you need before you travel.

If you're visiting just one destination, a basic plug adapter that caters to one plug type is all you need. For trips to multiple destinations or for frequent flyers, a universal travel adapter can prove more versatile. The universal adapters we recommend here have the bonus of including multiple USB ports for charging several mobile devices from a single outlet.

A Word on Voltage Converters

Voltage converters are big, heavy, and expensive, and they don’t always work, so it’s probably best not to buy one. The reason you might think you need one is that the AC sockets on all of our recommended travel adapters do not convert the voltage coming from the socket. This means plugging into a UK socket will deliver 220 volts at 50 hertz, which is very different from the 120 volts at 60 hertz you can expect in the US. Don't worry! Your gear won't get fried. You just need to make sure anything you plug into one of these universal travel adapters has something like this printed on it:

Input: 100–220V 50/60Hz .

That should include most modern gadgets. If your device or charger can’t handle a variable voltage, it’s probably best to leave it at home. Most places provide hair dryers , irons, and kettles, so there’s no need to take them with you. It's often cheaper to buy a set with the correct plug at your destination and save the luggage space and hassle.

If you are absolutely determined to try a voltage converter (again, we recommend you don’t), the Ceptics 2000W Travel Voltage Converter ($70) seems to work well. It has a special 2,000-watt outlet for hair dryers, but only ones that work via a mechanical switch (anything with an electronic circuit board for automatic switch-off or temperature control won’t work and is at risk of being fried if plugged in). It also has two outlets that go up to 200 watts, one USB-C port, and three USB-A ports, though the ports do not support fast charging.

Everything Else You Need to Know

Here are a few additional tips and answers to help ensure your trip goes as planned.

Test everything before you go : Seriously, nothing is worse than thinking you’re being very clever by packing light and getting to your hotel to discover that your gadgets refuse to charge. Between the adapter, cable, and your device, plenty can go wrong, so do a quick test with everything you are taking before you set off.

Can travel adaptors go in a suitcase? Yes, you can pack travel adapters in your suitcase. But it may be wise to take a travel adapter in your hand luggage for easy access should you need to charge up a device when you arrive at your destination. Devices like power banks with lithium batteries inside must go in hand luggage, not checked bags.

Can I buy travel adapters at the airport? Yes, you almost certainly can, but like everything else at the airport, they will be far more expensive than they should be, and your choice will be limited.

Do hotels have travel adapters? Sometimes hotels have travel adapters, and some hotels even have outlets for other countries, but most do not, so don’t bank on it. You could always check with your hotel or accommodation before you depart, but it’s safer to snag a travel adapter to take with you.

Nena Farrell

Scott Gilbertson

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Eric Ravenscraft

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The Best Travel Plug Adapter

By Geoffrey Morrison

If you want to use electronic devices in a different country, you’ll probably need a travel plug adapter. After spending more than 30 hours researching and testing 14 options, we found the Epicka Universal Travel Adapter to be the best one. It fits four types of outlets, and it has more USB ports than any of its competitors, so it can can charge more devices at higher speeds.

Everything we recommend

Epicka Universal Travel Adapter

Best universal travel adapter.

With four plugs that will work in most countries, plus faster-charging USB ports (and more of them) than its competitors, this adapter is the best all-around choice.

Buying Options

Ceptics International Worldwide Travel Plug Adapter 5 Piece Set

The best plug adapter.

Individually, these tiny plug adapters are smaller, lighter, and cheaper than any universal travel adapter. To juice up multiple devices, though, you’d need a separate multiport charger too.

Ceptics Plug Adapter Set

Heavier, but sturdier.

The plugs in this set of five are bigger and heavier than our top pick for plug adapters, but more solidly built.

In a sea of almost-identical travel adapters, the Epicka Universal Travel Adapter stands out, combining the best of the features we were looking for. It contains the three most common international plugs and a US-style plug, which should cover you in the majority of countries around the world. It has the most USB ports—four of the standard USB-A and one USB-C—of any universal adapter we tested, and it could charge more of our devices faster. A replaceable fuse and an included spare should take the brunt of any accidental, unfortunate, or shockingly bad connections. The Epicka is fairly compact and well built, and it even comes with a nylon case.

However, no universal travel adapter is truly universal, and they’re all a lot bulkier and more expensive than simple plug adapters. If you want the smallest adapter possible, or if you’re going someplace where a universal adapter won’t work (more on that in a minute), then a plug adapter could be what you need.

The Ceptics tiny plug adapters are barely larger than the prongs they convert. Small, simple, and cheap, they’re perfect for someone who wants to carry only the adapter they’ll need and who already has a multiport USB wall charger they like. Like our universal adapter picks, this set contains the three most common international plugs and the US plug. However, it also includes a somewhat rarer plug used in some European countries that has two thick, cylindrical prongs. This means that the Ceptics will likely cover you in even more places—as long as you pack the appropriate plug adapter.

These plug adapters are bigger than our top pick for plug adapters, but this means they offer a larger surface for chargers to brace against, which makes them more stable and less likely to fall off the wall. (We’ll call these “ Ceptics White ” to minimize confusion and set them apart from our “Ceptics Black” top pick.) While you can purchase these as a five-pack, which contains basically the same assortment of plugs as the Ceptics Black set, the company also sells, in this same model line, three-packs for nearly a dozen specific regions. So if you’re headed to a country not covered by the so-called universal travel adapters (for example, Brazil , India , Israel , or South Africa ), or if you want to purchase multiple adapters for your gear, there’s probably an option available here.

A note up here, which we’ll discuss in detail below: All of these are adapters only . They do not convert voltage. The majority of your electronic devices only need adapters—the voltage converter is built into the charger itself. (If the device charges via USB, just about any USB port will suffice, though different ports may provide different charging speeds.) Check out Do you need a voltage converter? if you’re curious about these aspects.

The research

Why you should trust us, who should get this, how we picked, how we tested, our pick: epicka universal travel adapter, flaws but not dealbreakers, our pick: ceptics international worldwide travel plug adapter 5 piece set, runner-up: ceptics adapter plug set for worldwide international travel use, do you need a voltage converter, the competition.

In addition to my work here at Wirecutter, I also write about tech and travel for CNET, Forbes, and Wirecutter’s parent company, The New York Times . Perhaps more relevant to this guide, I usually spend a good chunk of each year (global pandemics aside) as a digital nomad, living months at a time in different countries all over the world. My current country count is 50, spread across six continents, and since I travel with a lot of electronics gear for work, being able to plug in is obviously crucial.

I’ve owned and used many different types of universal-style travel adapters, and several different companies’ worth of plug adapters, plus I’ve talked with countless travelers about what they like … or, more important, what they hate. We also got some advice from Wirecutter's Mark Smirniotis, who used to oversee our power devices section.

Do you travel? Are you going to travel sometime in the (near or far) future? Do you want to be able to charge or use electronic devices in a different country? If so, you’re probably going to need a travel plug adapter. There’s a variety of different outlet types around the world, not to mention different voltages and frequencies, so you can’t expect your phone charger to just plug in and work wherever you’re headed. Sure, Canada, Mexico, Japan, and many other countries use the same small pair of prongs as the US, but places like continental Europe, the UK, Australia, India, Russia, and pretty much everywhere else do not.

You have two main choices when it comes to travel plug adapters: the universal-style travel adapters (that’s one device with multiple sets of prongs that you extend and retract) and smaller, individual plug adapters that usually come in sets. Both have pros and cons.

Should you get a universal travel adapter or a simple plug adapter?

Universal travel adapters are for the person who wants one handy adapter that will work in just about every country. You can keep it next to your passport and toss it in your luggage when you’re packing. The ones we considered have USB ports, so you don’t need to worry about bringing a separate charger for anything that charges via USB (think  phones  and noise-cancelling headphones ). However, these are bulky, they have parts that can break, and even the best will take longer to charge your phone or tablet than will a good USB wall charger .

The alternative is small and simple plug adapters. These attach to the prongs of your current USB charger (whether it’s a multiport one or the charger that came with your device) to allow them to fit into a foreign outlet. These can work because nearly every modern charger can adjust to the available voltage in pretty much every country, as long as you can adapt the prongs to fit in the outlet. (More on this in Do you need a voltage converter? ) These are great for people who already have a multiport USB charger they like and don’t want to deal with the additional bulk of a universal travel adapter. Also, these are necessary if you’re traveling to a country that has outlets incompatible with any of the four types included in a universal adapter (which, as that sentence reveals, aren’t actually universal).

The choice between universal travel adapters and individual plug adapters ultimately comes down to personal preference. Both types work, and different people will like or dislike each. If you’re not sure which will be best for you, read each section here closely.

Here’s the big caveat: If you’re planning on bringing something with you that has a motor, a heating element, or a single power cord that leads directly from the plug to the device (i.e. there’s no power brick or wall wart ), it almost certainly won’t work with a travel plug adapter. Most people will only need one of the adapter choices we recommend, but very occasionally there’s a piece of gear that needs a voltage converter. For more on that topic, also check out the voltage converters section below.

Where in the world will your travel plug adapter work?

All universal travel adapters have four different sets of prongs, which cover most countries most Americans tend to travel to. First is the big, wide-blade UK-style plug (often designated "Type G”) . This will work in places like the UK, obviously, and also Ireland, Hong Kong, and some other parts of Asia and the Middle East.

Next is the round Europe-style plug, aka the Europlug (Type C) . However, this is where we run into complications. This plug should work in most of Europe—it was designed, in fact, to fit into a wide range of European outlet types. For instance, parts of Italy, Switzerland, and Denmark each use different plugs from one another. Should this double-round one work in those locations? Yes. Will it? Hard to say. I’ve stayed in places where my Europlug didn’t work, yet it did in the hostel before and the hotel after—all within the same small region of a country. With any luck, if this happens to you, the place you’re staying will have a power strip that will let you plug in, though there’s no guarantee of that.

Third is the angled small-blade style (Type I) found in Australia, New Zealand, Fiji and other parts of Oceania, and a few other areas. Some universal adapters have one set of blades for this and the US style—you just manually rotate the blades into the correct position depending on where you are. In our testing, we had no trouble getting them to work.

The last, the small US-style blades (Type A or B) , mean you could use our picks to visit the US and other countries that have the same plugs—if, that is, you’re reading this from outside the US.

What are the places not covered by these four styles? Some parts of Brazil, South Africa, India, and more. I’ve stayed in parts of Italy, for example, that should have Europlugs but only had something called Type L . I’ve stayed in houses in Brazil that had Type N , but the Europlug fit enough to work. In others, it wouldn’t.

To find out which plugs you might need while traveling, refer to the excellent Wikipedia article called Mains electricity by country that shows pictures of (almost) all the possible plugs and outlets, along with a list of the world’s countries and (almost all of) the style or styles they use. This is invaluable information to check before you leave. If multiple plug types are listed for a specific country and you’re staying in an older building, you should probably assume its outlets will require whatever plug isn’t on a universal travel adapter, since these only have the most common, newer varieties of plugs.

Which brings us to perhaps the most important fact: Getting your gear to work in different countries isn’t quite as simple as it should be, and there’s no single solution that’s guaranteed to work for everyone. Our picks should work for you, but you may have some random piece of equipment, or be traveling to some country, for which our “good for most” picks just won’t work. (Case in point: One Wirecutter editor visited Iceland recently. The house she stayed in had outlets unlike anything on Wikipedia’s chart, and the plug adapters she’d used elsewhere in Reykjavik didn’t fit at all. It turns out the mystery sockets belonged to an obscure Italian system from the 1960s that was popular in Iceland for a time. Luckily, the hosts had power strips in the house that her adapters fit into.) We’ll try to mention such potential caveats when we can, but the world is a big place, and when it comes to electricity and wall outlets, there’s a lot of variation. That’s important to keep in mind.

There are approximately 70 billion universal travel plug adapters on the Web. However, after spending 20 hours staring at them, I found there’s only about a dozen basic designs—and countless “companies” selling them. Among those dozen or so actually different products, I saw a few distinctions that helped narrow the field. Since most options had four USB ports, that seemed like a reasonable minimum to require. Their maximum power output, rated in amps, became a determining factor in our rankings. The higher the maximum output, the faster the port will charge your gear.

Some plugs came with a replaceable fuse, which seemed like a good idea, and a few included a replacement for said fuse, which seemed even better. This way, if either you plug the adapter into a sketchy outlet or a roommate at the hostel uses your adapter to plug in their completely necessary portable arc welder, the fuse will go, not your adapter. Then it’s just a matter of swapping in the included spare fuse and you’re good to go.

These fuses have a maximum power rating, and therefore the adapters have a maximum wattage rating. However, you shouldn’t be connecting anything with a high enough power draw to trip these fuses. Check out Do you need a voltage converter? for more information. The short version is that recharging portable electronic devices is fine, but powering anything that has a motor or heats up is not. Nearly every appliance or device has its power draw written on it somewhere , so worst case, you can compare that to what’s listed on the adapter. And so you don’t have to look it up, volts × amps = watts.

The other option we considered and tested is individual plug adapters. These small adapters attach to the prongs of your current charger so they’ll plug into a foreign outlet. In deciding which of these to test, we judged by size and available plug-type options. As you’ll see with our two picks, one is exceptionally small, and the other offers sturdier plugs that are available in a range of plug types that’s wide enough to cover you no matter where in the world you’re headed.

The universal travel adapters are far more similar to one another than they are different. However, getting in a dozen and playing with them for a while revealed that some felt better put together than others. After spending several minutes with each one, forcefully extending the various plugs, slamming them back in, and just being fairly rough with them, I found it easy to tell which felt like they’d last a few trips, and which wouldn’t. None felt like you’d own them for a lifetime. Since none are expensive, though, this didn’t seem like a major issue.

All had a US-style plug, so I tested each one in several outlets around my house—some new, some old. I didn’t find much difference in how they fit and worked. I connected several chargers and plugs to the output side of each adapter as well. Again, not much difference. Last, I checked how bright the LED on each was, since a too-bright LED keeping me awake has been a pet peeve of mine for years. Many USB chargers have LEDs bright enough to practically read from; I eliminated any universal adapter that had this problem.

For the plug adapters, I tried plugging in several devices, as well as inserting them into outlets around my house. I checked how tight the connections were and how they felt overall. Would they fall apart with simple use or perhaps hold up to being tossed around in bags for a few weeks or months?

In reality, the testing for all the adapter types didn’t reveal much variation in terms of performance. These are all remarkably similar products. How they felt to use and their different features played a far bigger role in establishing our final picks.

While all the universal travel adapters we tested included the same three types of plugs (plus the familiar US-style one), they differed in how many USB ports each had and how quickly they could charge—and that’s where the Epicka Universal Travel Adapter excelled. It has five USB ports: four of the standard USB-A size and one of the newer USB-C. (You may not have a USB-C device at the moment, but you likely will in the future.) These will let you charge, say, three phones, two tablets, and—via the adapter’s main plug—a camera battery that has its own wall charger, all at once.

In addition, and just as important, is the maximum power output: 5.6 amps. This was the highest of all the adapters we considered, which means you can charge more of your devices at higher speeds before hitting the max output.

Keep in mind that the maximum output per USB-A port is 2.4 amps, the max on the USB-C port is 3 amps, and if you’re using all five ports you won’t be able to charge every connected device at full speed—it’ll only give you that 5.6 amp output in total . The output is still far lower than what you can get from a decent USB charger combined with our pick for a simple plug adapter (more on that in the plug adapter section , below), but it’s significantly better than most universal travel adapters, which often max out under 3 amps total.

The Epicka has three sliders on one side, with a button on the other to lock/unlock your chosen plug in place. This arrangement feels more secure than the semi-locking or slide-locking system that some other universals use. However, this is plastic-on-plastic, so don’t expect a tank. As these things go, the Epicka feels sturdy. The US and Australia share a pair of prongs—you twist the prongs manually to set them up for an angled Australia-style outlet.

The four regular USB plugs are all on one side, which is tidier than the “flailing gibbon” look of some other universal adapters.

The above details were what put the Epicka at the top of our list, but the adapter has a few other features that are the cherry on top, so to speak. For instance, it comes with a small nylon case and a USB cable with a split end, so it works with either Micro-USB or Lightning devices. While the adapter has an LED to show you it’s working, the glow isn’t so bright as to be a distraction at night.

One last note. There are multiple Epicka universal adapters, and even Epicka can’t keep the names straight. We’ve seen this one called, variously, Universal Travel Adapter, International Travel Adapter, Travel Adapter-2, Universal USB Travel Power Adapter (2018), and even Universal Travel Adapter One Worldwide International Wall Charger AC Plug Adaptor with 5.6A Smart Power 3.0A USB Type-C for USA EU UK AUS Cell Phone Tablet Laptop (Grey). Best to follow the link above. Also, you may find another company selling a twin of this. The Epicka has the most reviews and offers free shipping with Prime. The other options we saw have few or no reviews, or charge outrageous shipping costs.

As with all of these adapters, I wouldn’t expect the Epicka to last forever. Given its locking design and case, it’s probably going to last longer than many others, but all of these are almost entirely inexpensive plastic devices. Just something to keep in mind.

While the prongs themselves felt secure, and being able to lock them into place was nice, it’s entirely possible that the size and weight of the adapter, plus whatever you’ve plugged into it, could pull it out of an outlet. That is, unfortunately, a risk with every universal adapter.

Another risk with any universal adapter—as we mentioned above—is that it’s not going to work where you’re headed. Epicka claims it will work in 150 countries, but there are more than 200 countries (the exact number is harder to pin down than you might realize) . And even in each of those 150 countries, there’s no guarantee that the adapter will work in every outlet in every building. Plug adapters are a somewhat safer bet to work specifically where you’re going, but they have their own downsides, which we’ll discuss below.

Also, while the Epicka is a little smaller than some of the others we tested, all universal adapters are much bulkier than plug adapters. As someone who has spent most of the past several years traveling, I feel plug adapters are far easier and less annoying to deal with. This is largely why we have two recommendations for that category.

The Ceptics Plug Adapter set combines everything we were looking for in plug adapters: small size, solid build quality, and—well, small size is really the thing here. Each adapter is no larger than it needs to be to fit over the American-style prongs of your charger. The plastic feels solid and not flimsy. Each adapter has the region or countries it should be used in written on the side. The five plugs in the set are the same four as you’ll find on the universal adapters recommended above, plus the thicker, round European-style prongs used in parts of France, parts of Asia, and elsewhere.

Though the set comes with a small case, you probably wouldn’t be traveling with the entire set very often. Instead, you’d pack just the specific adapter or adapters you’d be using on each trip. These are for the person who wants to travel as light and as simply as possible. I myself, and my friends who travel frequently, swear by these small, inexpensive adapters. Also, if you have a USB multiport charger you like or a charger that’s especially fast, you can use that charger with just a tiny, almost weightless plug at the end.

However, plug adapters aren’t for everyone, and that’s why they’re not our main pick. For one thing, if you don’t already own a multiport USB wall charger, you’ll still have to get one if you don’t want to carry a charger for each device. Also, depending on what you’re connecting with these plug adapters, your charger or device could wobble and maybe fall out. The connections inside are solid enough that this shouldn’t happen, but it’s possible. Our universal-adapter picks, as well as the other Ceptics set we discuss below, have a larger “face” for your charger to brace against—more like that of a traditional outlet—so there’s less chance of gravity having its way with your gear.

Being small and inexpensive, plug adapters are not built for high-power, high-wattage items, though hopefully we’ve persuaded you to leave those at home . If you’re charging a battery, you should be fine. If you’re running a motor, probably not. Laptops, yes; mini-fridges, no.

Last, these things being so small, you could easily lose them in your bag or leave them behind in an outlet somewhere, if you’re the type of person who loses things. (That’s why I usually keep mine connected to my charger.)

For a hardcore traveler like me, these are my pick. They’re cheap, light, and small, and they work.

Though made by the same company as the Ceptics International Worldwide Travel Plug Adapter 5 Piece Set—and bearing a confusingly similar name—the plug adapters in the Ceptics Adapter Plug Set for Worldwide International Travel Use are, as you can see, a completely different design. They’re much larger than the other Ceptics (let’s call the previous set Ceptics Black and this one Ceptics White for simplicity). Nonetheless, they’re each smaller than a universal adapter, and they have one key benefit over our top plug-adapter pick: You can purchase them in multipacks for individual regions, including regions beyond those covered by the Ceptics Black set.

The Ceptics White are small, but not as small as the Ceptics Black. That extra size does offer one benefit, however: These adapters have more of a face on the output side, so there’s more surface for your charger to lean against. This means your charger is less likely to fall out. Again, neither set of plugs we tested had loose connections, but this is always a risk, as chargers vary. One other difference: In place of the two-pronged US plug we saw (type A) in our other picks, this set includes the three-pronged grounded version .

The real benefit to the Ceptics Whites, however, is not their physical characteristics. This range is one of your only options if you want to buy a plug adapter for a specific region or country. Headed to India or South Africa ? A universal adapter probably won’t work, but you can get a three-pack of Ceptics that will. You can also buy the offset three-prong and in-line three-prong for Switzerland and Italy, respectively, as well as plugs for Israel and Brazil , both the thin and the thick European plugs, and of course, Australia and UK versions too. They cost less than $10 per set. Any of those links will bring you to a page that lets you choose among plugs for different regions—definitely verify at checkout that you’ve picked the correct ones!

These adapters are ideal for someone headed to a country not covered by a universal adapter, or who has multiple chargers they want to plug in while traveling. They’re not quite as compact as the Ceptics Black adapters, but for most people, this difference in size won’t be an issue. I’ve traveled with these Ceptics plugs for many years, and they show no signs of wear.

Every adapter you see in this guide merely sends the current from the wall directly to whatever you plug into it. These are not voltage converters. Which is to say, if you’re in the UK, whatever you plug into the front of the adapter is going to get the UK’s 220 volts/50 hertz electricity, not the 120 volt/60 hertz that you’d get in the US. Travel plug adapters don’t convert the voltage; they only convert the plug . (Our universal picks do convert the local current to USB voltage, but only for the USB ports.)

However, for the vast majority of people, this is all you need. It’s exceptionally rare that anyone would need a voltage converter anymore. This is because most so-called wall warts, like on your phone charger or your camera’s battery charger, will convert the wall voltage into what it needs automatically.

Take a look at your charger. Somewhere, it should say “100–220V 50/60Hz.” This means it can accept anything between 100 V and 220 V, which covers domestic electricity pretty much everywhere, and either 50 Hz or 60 Hz, which again covers everything. If your charger doesn’t say this, it might not work with a travel adapter. If it only says "120V–60Hz," it will almost certainly not work—or not work correctly—with a travel adapter.

But here’s the other reason we don’t recommend buying a voltage converter: Your device might not work even with one. Anything with a motor (like hair dryers), anything with a heating element (like a clothing iron or a curling iron), or anything with a plug that goes directly to the device (as in no wall wart), probably won’t work in another country regardless of what kind of converter or adapter you bring . The good news is, pretty much every hotel, hostel, and Airbnb will have a hair dryer you can borrow. This is one of those times where we can’t cover everything you might want to bring, but for the vast majority of you, you don’t need a voltage converter. Either it’s not necessary, or the device that needs one won’t work anyway. Worst case, if it’s something cheap and you really need it—a hot pot or an electric kettle, say—consider buying one at your destination.

One occasional exception is electric razors. These often fall into the “single cable, no wall wart, has a motor” category. Which is to say, they probably won’t work without a voltage converter. (Again, check the fine print near the plug or on the device itself.) Many hotels have a shaver plug in the bathroom , with a US-style outlet and US-style 110 volt-or-so voltage. However, not every hotel will have these, and they’re very rare in hostels and Airbnbs. If you need one, best to call ahead and see if your hotel has them. Or use disposables on your trip.

It’s worth noting again for clarity, USB is USB, so if you’re just plugging in a USB cable , unless something is horribly wrong, one USB port’s voltage is the same as any other USB port’s voltage. How fast that port will charge your gear will vary (that’s related to amperage), but unless the charger is faulty, a USB port shouldn’t damage your gear.

We considered many more adapters than those listed here. However, the majority of travel adapters available boil down to just a dozen or so designs sold by myriad companies. We’ve listed two representatives of each of the most common designs, but in most cases, many more exist. Chances are, if it looks similar and has similar specs, it’s probably the same inside.

Universal travel adapters

Askali, Unidapt , others: Only 3.4 amps maximum output, which means it’ll take longer to charge all of your devices.

Bluegogo  (currently unavailable): Only two USB and slower-charging than our picks.

Bonaker: Formerly our runner-up pick, this travel adapter had the usual mix of four plug types to cover you in most countries, but its four USB-A ports were slower than our top pick’s, and it had no USB-C port at all. It’s also since disappeared from Amazon.

Bonazza , Urbo , others: Feels flimsy, even compared with others here. Two-piece design is more cumbersome than helpful. Only 3.4 amps maximum output.

Ceptics Travel Power Strip : The Travel Power Strip combines the interchangeable-plug aspect of the Ceptics Plug Adapter Set with a two-outlet power strip and short extension cord. It also has USB-A and USB-C outputs. If you have multiple non-USB items you want to charge at once—a laptop and a camera charger, for instance—this is a good option. But we think most travelers will prefer the more portable brick design of our picks over this power strip.

Conair Travel Smart : It has only one USB port, with a maximum of 1 amp, but with three outlets, it’s one of the few travel adapters that lets you plug in multiple non-USB devices.

Monoprice Compact Cube Universal Travel Adapter : I own one of these, and it’s fine, but if you’re going the universal route, our picks have USB charging for just a few dollars more. If you don’t need USB charging, our plug-adapter picks are probably better choices. Insten is a similar product but with, apparently, surge suppression built in. But as there’s no way to change the fuse, this is likely one-and-done if you plug in something too powerful.

Mu One (currently unavailable): The Mu offered a much higher power output than other travel adapters: 45 watts, enough to quickly charge even a big-battery device such as a MacBook Air. However, after trying and failing to launch a Mu Two in 2020, the company went out of business. The name and remaining assets were bought by a company called Discovery Club, which seems to be selling off the inventory.

Ougrand (green) : Same shape as the Unidapt, but with a USB-C in place of one of the regular USB connections; 3.4 amp max total.

Huanuo  (currently unavailable): A bit bulky, with three regular USB ports and one USB-C; 3.4 amps maximum.

WGGE , Jollyfit : Only 2.4 amps max, less than either of our picks.

Plug adapters

Bestek Grounded Universal Worldwide Plug : Likely made in the same factory as the Ceptics White plugs, the Bestek set looks the same and is roughly the same price. It offers a wide variety of plug types, but lacks the Type C Europlug that’s common in most adapter sets and usable across most of Europe. (The Europlug was invented to fit into a wide range of European outlet types.) If our Ceptics White pick is sold out, these will also work.

Lewis N. Clark Adapter Plug Kit  (currently unavailable): This kit looks fine, but it is more expensive and has one less plug compared with our Ceptics pick.

Insignia Global Travel Adapter Kit  (currently unavailable): The Insignia has a clever interlocking and compact design, akin to that of the old Flight 001 universal adapter (Flight 001, the specialty travel-gear retailer, is now no longer operating in the US), and the individual plugs feel solid. However, it is expensive compared with our picks, and it doesn’t offer anything that you couldn’t do with our picks just by connecting them end to end (if you wanted to).

This article was edited by Ria Misra and Christine Ryan.

Meet your guide

Geoffrey Morrison

Geoffrey Morrison is Wirecutter’s former AV editor, current editor-at-large, and a travel writer and photographer. He covers action cameras, gimbals, travel backpacks, and other gear. He has been to all 50 states and 60 countries, and he is the author of Budget Travel for Dummies and the sci-fi novel Undersea .

Further reading

The Best Travel Power Strips and Surge Protectors With USB Charging

by Sarah Witman

The best power strip for travel in North America is the easily packable Tripp Lite Protect It 3-Outlet Surge Protector —our top pick for eight years running.

The Best Gear for Travel

by Wirecutter Staff

We put in another year and tens of thousands more miles of travel to test the best travel gear—and we stand by last year’s choices alongside a few new picks.

The Gadgets We Bring on Every Trip

by Haley Perry

You don't have to be a digital nomad to travel like one. Here are a few gadgets and accessories to make travel as painless as possible.

The Best USB-C Cables and Adapters

by Jared Newman

Although USB-C cables look similar, they’re not one-size-fits-all. We have recommendations for every situation.

Apple World Travel Adapter Kit

Product Information

The World Travel Adapter Kit includes a set of seven AC plugs with prongs that fit different electrical outlets around the world, each laser-etched with the regions they are compatible with. For world travelers, this is the perfect kit to ensure power connectivity in most countries you may travel to.

The kit is designed to work with iPod, iPhone, iPad, and Mac notebooks. It is compatible with Apple USB-C Power Adapters, MagSafe, MagSafe 2, and MagSafe 3 Power Adapters, 10W and 12W USB Power Adapters, and Portable Power Adapters.

The AC plugs included in the World Travel Adapter Kit directly support outlets in North America, Japan, China, United Kingdom, Continental Europe, Korea, Australia, Hong Kong, and Brazil.

The 10 Best Travel Adapters of 2024

Essential packing for any international traveler

We independently evaluate all recommended products and services. If you click on links we provide, we may receive compensation. Learn more .

TripSavvy / Chloe Jeong

Travel overseas comes with its share of logistical challenges. Charging your devices in Greece or Sweden shouldn't be one of them. Travel adapters allow an electronic device from one country to plug into a differently shaped outlet. For example, U.S. wall outlets require a plug with two flat vertical prongs, while outlets in the U.K. require a plug with a top vertical prong and two bottom horizontal ones. One major heads-up: most adapters do not convert electricity from one voltage to another, which may be a requirement depending on where you're headed.

When selecting products, we considered supported destinations, the number of USB ports, and different price points.

Final Verdict

• What to Look For

Why Trust TripSavvy

Best overall, epicka universal travel adapter.

Packs easily

Quick-charging USB ports

Covers a wide range of countries

Noisy when charging

A travel adapter helps charge your electronic devices on the go, whether you're taking a short trip across the pond or hopping on a worldwide adventure. The Epicka Universal USB Travel Power Adapter offers support for more than 150 countries, including the U.S., Australia, and most of Europe. The universal input design allows a multitude of plug options. The inclusion of four USB-A ports on its front and a USB-C port allows the charging of six devices at a single time. The first set of USB-A ports charge at 2.4 amps, making it ideal for tablets, cameras, and phones for faster charging, while the remaining two ports charge at 2.1 amps, making them better suited for phones only. The adapter's versatility and compact size saved our reviewer from overpacking. Our tester also appreciated the bonus iPhone charger that comes included.

As with many universal adapters, the Epicka is designed with 110-volt devices in mind, so it's not recommended for higher-powered appliances such as hair dryers or flat irons. 

Size: 2.8 x 2 x 2 inches | Weight: 7.2 ounces | Maximum Voltage: 240 volts | USB Ports: 5

Best Budget

Jmfone universal international travel power adapter.

Charges multiple devices at the same time

Small, compact design

Not compatible with high-energy devices

Simple, lightweight, and effective, Jmfone's universal power adapter is ideal for international travel. It covers 160 countries worldwide to support any backpacker's wanderlust. Perfect for phones and laptops, this adapter simultaneously charges up to five devices with its four USB slots and one AC socket. Thanks to the classic one-piece block structure and built-in surge protection, it packs easily and keeps your devices juiced up. We should note that it's not recommended for use with high-power appliances such as hair dryers.

Size: 2 x 2 x 2 inches | Weight: 4.5 ounces | Maximum Voltage: 240 volts | USB Ports: 4

Conair Travel Smart Conair Travel Smart All-In-One Adapter

Fast charging time

Works with dual voltage appliances

Has features to protect devices

Only one USB port

Not compact

For a travel adapter that performs well, can charge more than one device at a time, and is available at a reasonable price, the Conair Travel Smart All-In-One Adapter is a must-have travel accessory. The all-in-one universal adapter has three outlets and one USB port, so you can charge up to four devices simultaneously—making it great for families or those traveling in groups. The adapter has built-in surge protection and works in Africa, Asia, Australia, New Zealand, the Caribbean, Europe, Great Britain, the Middle East, and North and South America . 

Size: 7.3 x 5.4 x 2.6 inches | Weight: 5.44 ounces | Maximum Voltage: 240 volts | USB Ports: 1 

Best Converter Combo

Bonazza bonazza all-in-one world travel plug.

Built-in surge protection

Easy to pack

Easy to use

No USB ports

Traveling outside the U.S. with high-powered electronic devices is always a bit tricky as you need to convert the voltage from 220-240 volts to 110-120 volts. Fortunately, there are options like the Bonazza All-in-One Adapter and Converter, which do exactly that, making travel in more than 150 countries much easier. This all-in-one option offers the comfort of knowing you can use higher-powered devices, such as a hair dryer, without risking a blown fuse.

Beyond hair dryers, this adapter/converter combo is suitable for popular items such as iOS devices, laptops, straighteners, and more. For the input itself, the Bonazza only accepts U.S. standard-type plugs, not international varieties. At just 3 inches and 7.2 ounces, it's also an ultra-portable choice. Our reviewer appreciated the compact size and accompanying travel pouch, noting that it "makes it easy to keep the adapter clean." Our tester also found the adapter incredibly simple, a real bonus compared to other devices.

Size: 2.3 x 2.5 x 2.8 inches | Weight: 3.66 ounces | Maximum Voltage: 240 volts | USB Ports: 0

Runner-Up, Best Converter Combo

Bestek travel adapter and converter.

24-month warranty

Charges seven devices simultaneously

Generous cord length

Not compatible with hair appliances

Widely regarded as a great travel adapter, the Bestek Travel Adapter Converter is a superb combination that provides the best of two important worlds. As an all-in-one solution, the Bestek not only offers three separate international travel adapters covering more than 150 countries, but it also doubles as a 220-volt to 110-volt converter for reducing load and avoiding overheating your most precious travel items. TripSavvy Senior Editorial Director Laura Ratliff states, "Bestek's converter is a must-have when traveling abroad in hotel rooms with minimal outlets."

Capable of charging multiple devices at once, the Bestek adds four USB charging ports for a combined total of 6A output, plus three AC ports. The travel-ready design includes a bag for easy storage and a 5-foot power cable.

Size: 6 x 3 x 1.57 inches | Weight: 1.2 pounds | Maximum Voltage: 240 volts | USB Ports: 4

Best Universal

Ceptics international travel adapter.

Surge protection

Travel-friendly size

Does not convert voltage

When it comes to must-have products while traveling internationally, few items are more important than a universal travel adapter. Supporting worldwide charging in more than 150 countries, the Ceptics Travel Adapter is designed to work with almost any input plug configuration. It can charge as many as five devices simultaneously but works best with tablets, phones, and laptops. The four charging ports—two of which are 2.4 amps and two of which are 2.1 amps—are capable of working with nearly any USB-A device, including Android and iOS, as well as tablets, MP3 players, digital cameras, GPS, and more.

Size: 3 x 2.1 x 2.5 inches | Weight: 5.6 ounces | Maximum Voltage: 240 volts | USB Ports: 4

Most Portable

Targus travel adapter.

Cylindrical design

Worldwide voltage compatibility

This uniquely shaped power adapter from Targus allows you to connect to a wall outlet in North America, the U.K., Europe, Australia, and the Pacific region of Asia. The tube shape holds three interchangeable adapters for AC power cords. About the size of a pepper grinder, it stores easily in a carry-on or duffel bag . Durable polycarbonate plastic material ensures that this model can take all the packing/unpacking, bag dropping, and shoving that accompanies international travel. Note that you won't find any USB ports on this adapter.

Size: 5.6 x 3 x 7.6 inches | Weight: 5.1 ounces | Maximum Voltage: 250 volts | USB Ports: 0

Best User-Friendly

Flight 001 5-in-1 adapter.

Fun, visual organization

Some reviews mention durability issues

Color-coded and lightweight, the Flight 001 travel adapter is as functional as it is attractive. It breaks into four different adapters, separated by bright colors, so you can easily tell which adapter to use in which country you're in. Even more, each universal adapter corresponds to plugs for the U.S., the E.U., the U.K., and Australia and can work in over 150 different countries. The pieces conveniently attach like a cube, with two USB ports capable of charging tablets, cameras, and more.

Size: 4.06 x 2.52 x 2.05 inches | Weight: 6.7 ounces | Maximum Voltage: 240 volts | USB Ports: 2 

Best Compact

Oneadaptr world adapter.

Tested security

Compact and functional

If you want to save on space without sacrificing function, this device is for you. Another classic one-piece adapter, the One World PD sets itself apart by offering fully grounded connections for each plug type to protect against the risk of shock. The sliding toggle controls the North American, the U.K., and Australia/China plugs, while a smaller European plug pops out. It also has three USB-A ports and one USB-C to put out 18 watts. An over-current protection system will automatically shut off any abnormal usage detected. A BS8546 certification guarantees the highest protection. This small but mighty adapter is perfect for phones, tablets, and laptops (which charge best using the AC power adapter).

Size: 2.15 x 2.72 x 2.64 inches | Weight: 6.3 ounces | Maximum Voltage: 240 volts | USB Ports: 3

Best for Apple Users

Apple travel adapter kit.

Built to last

Reduces overall tech load

Trusted company

Not a standalone option

Most of us have strong opinions about our tech gear, especially when it comes to an iconic brand like Apple. If you are a supporter and own several of their products or even just a MacBook, this is a great complementary set of adapters. These plugs use the Apple power adapter brick as a base, so you'll need to have that already for this kit. It contains seven AC plugs with laser-etched labels for quick identification and covers many tourist destinations including Japan, Australia, Europe, Korea, Brazil, and more. As with any brand, there is peace of mind knowing that the accessories come from the same manufacturer for smooth and secure functioning. And, we appreciate that the price range fits right in with the other picks on our list.

Size: 5.3 x 5.3 x 1.9 inches | Weight: 11.2 ounces | Maximum Voltage: 240 volts | USB Ports: 1

When international adventure calls, be prepared with the Epicka Universal Travel Adapter . Its universal input design, USB-A, and USB-C ports simultaneously support up to six devices in over 150 countries. For the ultralight backpacker or the occasional jet-setter, the Jmfone Travel Adapter is a smart, budget-friendly choice.

What to Look For in a Travel Adapter

Destination.

If you want to cut down on bulk, go for a streamlined, single-type converter, though it might only work in some regions. On the other hand, universal adapters will be effective no matter where you wind up—so if you’re a frequent jet-setter, this might be the best option.

There are other benefits to choosing a lighter product, depending on the space you'll be staying in once you arrive. "Because some hotels and homes have outlets in the most unusual locations, make sure that the adapter is not too large or heavy to fit into sunken sockets," says Charlie Cotton, head of operations at millennial group travel company FTLO Travel.

Newer converters now come with USB ports, eliminating the need for the USB-to-outlet converter for charging tablets and phones. In most cases, this means that you can charge more than one device at a time, which is handy for families—everyone’s gadgets definitely add up on the road—or those traveling with multiple devices .

Forking over a ton of money for a converter you’ll only use once a year doesn’t make sense, so go for a price that correlates with how often you travel. That said, buying one before you leave for vacation is almost always cheaper than on the ground.

Many countries use a single plug type throughout. To ensure your adapter is compatible, you must identify the plug type used in the country or countries on your itinerary. World Standards shares a map that details plug types for every country.

A universal adapter allows you to take your devices worldwide with one compact adapter that fits a variety of outlets. A plug adapter fits a single country’s outlets.

A plug adapter updates the shape of your device’s plug to fit the outlet in the country you’re traveling to. It doesn’t convert voltage. A voltage converter adapts the electrical voltage from the device to the outlet. This is valuable because American devices sometimes operate at a different voltage than is available in other countries.

Amber Nolan is a travel writer located in Key West with over 10 years of experience in the travel industry. Her work has been published in USA Today, Jetsetter, Cruise Critic, Frommers, and several other travel publications. She is currently covering tourism for the local Key West newspaper, the Blue Paper. In addition to her research, we also sent several of the products to testers for their feedback. 

In researching what to look for when selecting travel adapters, we spoke to three travel experts. Experts we spoke to included:

• Lydia Mansel , outdoor gear writer at Just Packed
• Charlie Cotton , head of operations at millennial group travel company FTLO Travel
• Laura Ratliff , senior editorial director at TripSavvy

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Best travel adapter 2024: power up abroad

Forget spending a small fortune on a single adapter at the airport; these universal travel adapters are the way to go

The top three

• 1. Best overall travel adaptor
• 2. Best safe travel adaptor
• 3. Best affordable travel adaptor
• 4. Best versatile travel adaptor
• 5. Best travel adaptor for South Africa
• 6. Best travel adaptor for multiple devices

Best travel adaptor 2024: Jump Menu

00. T3's top 3 ↴ 01. Best overall : Hyleton Worldwide Travel Adapter 02. Best safe : MyTravelPal Worldwide Universal 10A 03. Best affordable : Bestek Worldwide Travel Adaptor 04. Best versatile : Ceptics World Travel Adapter Kit 05. Best for South Africa : Skross World To South Africa 06. Best for multiple devices : Bestek 200W 

Planning a trip abroad? Wherever you plan on going, you need to bring the best travel adapter with you to stay fully charged and powered while you're away.

Technology defines travel. It used to be all about postcards, travel journals and finding yourself, but can you ever feel relaxed abroad without knowing you can charge up your stash of tech? A universal travel adaptor is essential for any and all trips abroad. Whether you're sharing your trip with a smartphone, tablet, laptop, headphones, camera or Bluetooth speaker (not forgetting toothbrush, curling irons and travel kettle), you might as well get a good one.

Don't be an idiot at the airport, where universal travel adaptors are expensive and basic. Get it sorted before you set off on your travels with our collection of the very best around. Basic adaptors are available that convert from one country to another, but it's better to invest in a universal travel adaptor that caters for everything. So what should you look for?

Check out our guide below on how to choose the best travel adapter below and our top picks.

Lizzie is T3's Home Staff Writer, also covering style, living and wellness. She works closely with Bethan Girdler-Maslen, T3's Home Editor, ensuring all the latest Home news, trends and recommendations are covered. Lizzie is lucky enough to travel internationally for work, so has an extensive amount of knowledge around the best travel adaptors. 

The best overall travel adaptor

If you've entered the world of USB-C, this is the travel adaptor for you. Its multi-function plug fits more than 150 countries with UK/AU/US plugs. The adapter also has built-in safety shutters to protect you from the direct touch of the live parts on the socket outlet. A pretty great all-rounder to begin with! 

Read more below

The best safe travel adaptor

There are a couple of reasons why this universal adaptor from MyTravelPal stands out. The first is that it claims to be the safest travel adapter in the world – it's one of the very few all-in-one travel adapters that has passed the very strict regulatory standard BS:8546. It's a great option that won't let you down.

The best affordable travel adaptor

Again, this is a decent quality charger for a great price, though it only comes with 2 USB ports instead of 4. There’s a universal socket and it’s fitted with USA, Australian, UK and European plugs for use in over 150 countries. 

Best travel adapters ranking 2023

Why you can trust T3 Our expert reviewers spend hours testing and comparing products and services so you can choose the best for you. Find out more about how we test .

1. Hyleton Worldwide Travel Adapter

Specifications, reasons to buy, reasons to avoid.

If you have permanently positioned yourself into the world of USB-C, this is the travel adaptor for you. Although it has four standard USB slots that can each refuel a tablet, smartphone and other low-power gadgets, the Hyleton also has a USB-C slot fitted to the side for fast-charging a smartphone.

Elsewhere this compact adaptor's multi-function plug fits more than 150 countries with UK/AU/US plugs. The adapter also has built-in safety shutters to protect you from the direct touch of the live parts on the socket outlet. I was huge fan of this adaptor, and have often found myself reaching for it when packing for a trip.

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2. MyTravelPal Worldwide Universal 10A Travel Adapter

There are a couple of reasons why this universal adaptor from MyTravelPal stands out. The first is that it claims to be the safest travel adapter in the world – it's one of the very few all-in-one travel adapters that has passed the very strict regulatory standard BS:8546. MyTravelPal's 4 plugs have a ground/earth connection, an essential safety feature for many electrical appliances, meaning you can use this adapter with high powered electricals such as computers, curling tongs, hairdryers, laptops, phones, etc without worry. 

There's also a push-button resetting fuse, which means you don't need to carry spare fuses with you or rush out to buy replacements when you're on holiday. MyTravelPal's protection system ensures that it will automatically shut down if it detects any abnormal usage. It's a great product that won't let you down whilst keeping you safe. 

3. Bestek Worldwide Travel Adaptor

Again, this is a decent quality charger that comes in at a great price, though it only comes with 2 USB ports instead of 4. There’s a universal socket and it’s fitted with USA, Australian, UK and European plugs for use in over 150 countries. 

Thanks to the embedded micro USB cable, my phone and tablet benefitted from fast charging, which was great for work trips. With safety features, including fire proof materials, protection against power surges and a safety plug lock, this is another great all-rounder that should do the job nicely. 

The best versatile travel adaptor

4. Ceptics World Travel Adapter Kit

This is an excellent choice if you're a frequent traveller, especially if you jet set between one place and another. As it has six attachments, 2 USA outlets, 2 USB-A slots and a built-in USB-C cable, it's suitable for most electronic devices, giving you versatility to what you bring with you on your trip. 

I found it to be extremely lightweight and fast charging, which made it my first choice on two of my recent trips. I also liked the way it came with a travel pouch, meaning I was able to keep track of the attachments when visiting one or more countries. 

Unfortunately, the Ceptics World Travel Adapter Kit is only compatible with dual voltage products. This means it's perfect for phones and laptops, but won't work with 110V items such as hair clippers, hair dryers and hair straighteners. I found this slightly frustrating, but it's a common feature so it didn't affect my opinion too much. It should also be noted that the set doesn't include adapter plug for South Africa, so read below's listing if you're looking for one of those. 

The best travel adaptor for South Africa

5. Skross World To South Africa Travel Adapter

If you're going to Africa, you're going to need to get to know the Type-M socket. Never heard of it? Unfortunately almost all so-called 'universal travel adapter' are nothing of the sort because they don't include large parts of Africa and Asia, where an archaic UK plug now called Type-M is still used. 

As well as being standard in South Africa, Namibia, Namibia, Botswana, Mozambique, Lesotho and Swaziland, Type-M is common in Nepal and Bhutan, too. Cue this simple, but essential travel adapter that converts from every other plug in the world –such as the US, UK, Europe, Australia, China and Brazil – to the Type-M. This Switzerland-made example from Skross doesn't convert voltage, but it does work with power-hungry devices including laptops and travel hairdryers.

The best travel adaptor for multiple devices

6. Bestek 200W Travel Adaptor

A voltage converter is required for devices that do not offer dual voltage, which makes this device incredibly handy if you’re heading to the states, where voltage is a lot lower than the UK. 

With 2 AC plugs and 4 USB ports you’ll have no problem charging multiple devices at once – just bear in mind that you cannot plug in high-powered devices, such as hair dryers or straighteners. The device comes in a handy case, which contains three international AC adaptors for use in over 150 countries. The downside is you can only plug in UK devices.

How to choose the best travel adapter

The best travel adapters have USB sockets, so charging up phones, tablets and other portable devices should be fairly convenient. However, they're not all equal. Most will have at least a couple of USB slots, but check if they're rated 2.4V first. This will refuel your phone faster, and means it can cope with a tablet as well.

Better still, look for Quick Charge 3.0 (QC 3.0), which does it ever faster. If you have a laptop that charges via USB-C, look for a travel adaptor with built-in USB-PD (USB Power Delivery), which can send 100W into a laptop.

Not all travel adaptors will transform voltage, so it’s always worth checking to see if you need to purchase a voltage transformer alongside the adapter. Many devices are dual voltage rated, so you may not even require a transformer; even so, it’s always best to check the book of words to double-check. 

Good news is, all EU countries have the same voltage as the UK, so it’s only the USA, South America, Asia, Australasia and Africa that you need to think about. As a rule, high-powered devices such as hairdryers and straighteners cannot be used with a travel adaptor, with the advice being to purchase cheap ones when you’ve arrived at your destination. 

Amazon is usually the best place to head for travel adaptors, as you can get hold of highly-rated products for sometimes a fraction of the high street price (and with Prime Delivery).

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Lizzie is T3's Home Staff Writer, also covering style, living and wellness. She works closely with Bethan Girdler-Maslen, T3's Home Editor, ensuring all the latest news, trends and recommendations are covered. Outside of T3, Lizzie can be found mooching around Bath, attempting (or at least trying to) a new DIY project or spending time with family and friends.

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Travel Adapter

When you’re traveling to a new country, the plugs on your devices probably won't match the outlets at your destination. An adapter is the best item to use in a situation like this. It not only adapts to the outlet but, in a way, it changes the structure of the outlet in order to connect your device. Most common travel electronics are typically rated for worldwide voltage (input AC voltage range: 100-240V), so they should only require the use of an adapter. These items include cell phone chargers, tablet chargers, and laptop chargers. Read our adapter plug guide to select the right adapter for your next trip.

Ceptics Advantage

High quality products.

Designed in the USA with complete customer satisfaction in mind to manufacture superior travel adapters.

SAFE AND SECURE TO USE

All of our products are developed with safety in mind. We adhere to the international safety standards to produce a reliable product.

LIFETIME LIMITED WARRANTY

All of our travel adapters include the best warranty in the industry and backed by our responsive customer service.

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Customer Reviews

Buying this set of adapters make this trip to Grenada as well as any future trips, very easy to use that country's electricity. I am very happy that I bought this product. The quality of the product and extremely fair prices make doing business with Ceptics, an outstanding experience.

My wife and I just returned from a trip to Peru. We were really concerned about charging our I-phones and Camera due to the 220 current there in Peru. We purchased the Ceptics All-in-one travel adapter and it worked great for us. It’s a great product and will be a permanent item to include in our suitcase for future trips.

This converter worked exactly as advertised. It was able to charge 5 items at one time with no problems at all only drawback would be that the converter is large and heavy for a portable. If you leave it on your hotel table or desk you will have no problems.

Every product is independently selected by (obsessive) editors. Things you buy through our links may earn us a commission.

The 11 Best Travel Adapters, According to Frequent International Travelers

Let’s face it: Though you may dream of going off the grid for your next international trip, traveling without your phone , camera , or tablet isn’t particularly practical. And if you bring them, it’s inevitable that you’ll need to plug in and charge them at some point.

That’s why a trusty travel adapter is such an essential part of your packing list. While there are many options that can fit American plugs into international outlets, the right adapter should also fit your itinerary and the tech you’re bringing along. In addition to my own testing, I’ve tapped the expertise of world-touring travelers, creators, and influencers for whom staying powered up is as essential to their journeys as a passport. Whether you want to top up your phone battery in a Parisian café or need to charge seven devices from a single outlet, let their wisdom guide you to the adapter that most adeptly satisfies your travel needs.

A note: Unless explicitly mentioned here, it’s worth observing that typical travel adapters don’t convert power voltage, which can vary between countries. Though most smartphones and tablets are dual-voltage these days, you’ll want to double-check the specifications of your devices before leaving on your trip — especially if you’re bringing something like an electric shaver or a hair dryer.

Best “just the plug” travel adapters

“These are dirt cheap and fit in the palm of your hand,” says Going.com founder Scott Keyes of this low-cost, no-frills option fit for European (but not U.K.) travel. Small enough for even the tiniest, trickiest outlets, Keyes also lauds the flexibility that comes with this four-pack of adapters.

You both “don’t have to take turns charging your electronics” and don’t have to charge all of them in the same outlet, as you would with a bulkier (and pricier) all-in-one alternative. Plus, there’s something to be said for not letting a single missing adapter ruin your trip: “If I lose one, which, let’s be honest, happens not infrequently on the road, they’re cheap and easy to replace,” Keyes says.

For short trips that only involve a laptop and a phone, Arthur Wei, the well-traveled co-founder of Brooklyn Camper Vans , turns to this clever adapter. Truly living up to its “universal” billing, its ingenious design consists of interlocking pieces which snap into place to fit into European, British, Indian, Brazilian, and American outlets. Wei loves that Road Warrior’s adapter “packs light” and notes that its $12 price point means that your trip isn’t ruined if it goes missing.

Best travel adapters with built-in USB ports

I recently tested Epicka’s travel adapter on a two-week excursion around Portugal, and loved its ability to connect as many as six devices to power from a single outlet. It boasts three USB-C ports (plus two USB-A ports), all of which make it easy to charge smartphones, tablets, and other tech without even plugging a power block into the adapter itself.

If I have one complaint, it’s that it took a little extra finesse to fit it into the occasional oddly-angled European outlet. But double-checking that it’s plugged in properly is a small price to pay for this adapter’s charging capabilities. Overall, Epicka’s carry-on-friendly adapter offered solid value and performance, whether I needed to top up my camera battery or quickly charge my iPhone, iPad, and Nintendo Switch Lite while waiting for a transatlantic flight home.

When it comes to charging everything from her AirPods to her drone, Wendy Hu , photographer, creative director, and video host for Travel+Leisure, relies on this versatile option from Ceptics. Featuring two U.S. outlets, 2 USB-A slots ( another version features an additional two USB-C slots), and six interchangeable international adapters, Hu describes it as “sturdy and well-made” despite weighing in at just five ounces.

In addition to built-in surge protection to guard against voltage spikes and an attached micro USB cable (handy for charging smaller devices like Bluetooth headphones), it also offers quick-charging support for compatible devices — making it ideal for use in that brief window between daytime excursions and dinner plans, or during a brief pit stop in a café.

“For an adapter to work for me, it needs to be an all-in-one universal adapter with an AC outlet, USB-C, and USB-A outlets” says former Googler and current travel-content creator Catarina Mello , who recommends this one by Momax. “It also needs to have an overload dual fuse for safety and support for up to 2500 watts,” She says that’s a must in order to use devices like hair dryers, curlers, and steamers. “If your adapter can’t handle a larger surge current, it’ll get damaged or burn out.”

In addition to handling high-powered items, this universal adapter has space to power up to six devices from a single outlet across more than 150 countries. Three of those slots are quick charging USB-C ports, one of which pumps out 65 watts, delivering enough power to charge a laptop without bringing a separate adapter.

Matthew Kepnes, founder of Nomadic Matt and author of How to Travel the World on $50 a Day , is loyal to Joomfeen’s efficient universal adapter, which nestles input plugs for European, U.K., U.S., and Australian outlets into a single, streamlined adapter weighing just over three ounces. With two USB-A ports, it maxes out on charging three devices at a time, making it a little less versatile than other, more powerful options. But if you’re looking for an adapter that can get the job done without eating into your travel fund, this option is hard to beat.

Best travel adapters with multiple AC outlets

For travelers who prioritize power over portability (or those who need an adapter that can safely convert voltage), multiple experts recommend Bestek’s Universal Travel Adapter, including former NFL player and current travel creator Jeremy Cash , who loves its “all-in-one design.” With a three-AC-outlet power strip and four USB-A ports, it includes support for charging up to seven devices at once “no matter what country I’m in,” he says.

In addition to that plethora of charging ports, travel blogger and mom Kiersten Rich lauds its ability to convert voltage, which she says is “better for protecting expensive electronics” and “critical” for any hair tools you’re bringing along for the trip.

With a profile of 7.8-by-6.5 inches and a weight of one pound, it’s far from the most minimalist option, but the inclusion of a five-foot detachable power cable means that this adapter can transform a single hard-to-reach outlet into a convenient charging station. That’s why director, producer, and photographer Kathryn Sheldon has relied on it through years of overseas trips with cameras in tow. She says, “I don’t bring it if I’m trying to be super lightweight and carry-on only, but otherwise it’s an amazing tool.”

On a recent trip to Thailand, Pack Hacker editor Lauren Maternowski says her team loved the utility of this mighty adapter from Mogics, which can charge seven devices simultaneously thanks to a unique circular power strip ringing the outlet adapter. It also makes use of a retractable extension cable that she says makes it “handy if your accommodations are short on accessible plugs.”

Maternowski says that you can also remove the titular bagel and leave it behind if packing space is at a premium: “The adapter itself is one of the smallest we’ve seen, so it won’t take up much room in your bag.”

If you aren’t worried about converting voltage but still find that you’re “always charging a million things,” travel blogger Rich recommends this 110-volt option from Foval for use with European outlets. Similar to Bestek’s adapter, it offers three AC outlets, four USB-A ports, and an extension cord. But it has the added advantage of a USB-C port — not to mention a slimmer, lighter design that can plug directly into a wall socket while taking up about half as much space in your luggage.

Best travel adapter accessories

Boasting a full complement of mesh and zippered pockets plus velcro cord holders, former NFL player Cash argues that this ProCase product “is essential for anyone who carries a ton of cords when they travel.” But it’s not just about cables: With a padded bottom compartment featuring removable dividers, its water-resistant design can safely store everything from external hard drives and MacBook chargers to AirPods and SD cards. As the pro athlete turned seasoned traveler puts it: “Trust me when I say you need this case.”

Former Googler Mello doesn’t travel without this five-foot, triple-pronged braid that functions as a USB-A to USB-C, lightning, and micro-USB cable. Though she usually treats these cables as her backup option, they’re viable as a primary cable if you’re looking to minimize clutter, and Mello admits they’ve “come in handy more times than I can count.” In welcome news for those who regularly misplace cables, these are sold in packs of three.

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I'm a Travel Writer, and I Always Pack These 12 Amazon Essentials for International Trips, From $9

Shop must-have compression packing cubes, portable travel scales, and weekender bags.

Travel + Leisure / Tyler Roeland

In my years as a frequent international flier and Italian travel writer , I’ve come to learn (sometimes the hard way) that the items you pack can greatly impact your experience of being suspended some 30,000 feet in the air in a metal contraption for over six hours at a time. My biggest takeaway: it pays to be prepared. 

Through trial and error, I’ve fine-tuned my travel essentials packing list to include everything from spinner carry-on suitcases and compression packing cubes to portable luggage scales and travel adapters. The good news is that all of my favorite items can be found at Amazon, and they're starting at just $9. So without further ado, these are the 12 travel essentials I always pack to make my international flights smooth and stress-free, whether I’m traveling around the world to slake my newest destination obsession or returning home to Italy.

Gonex Compression Packing Cubes 

I never understood the hype around compression packing cubes until I tried them out for myself during a recent week-long road trip through Ireland . This bundle of four from Amazon-loved brand Gonex, in sizes ranging from S to XL, can compress a wardrobe's worth of clothes and is great for an overpacker such as me. I recently used them on a 10-day trip home to Rome and still had plenty of room left in my carry-on suitcase for shoes and toiletries. Now that I’m officially a compression packing cube believer, they come with me on every international trip. 

Travel Inspira Portable Digital Travel Scale 

Any overpacker knows the pain of reaching the airport check-in desk and having to pay an exorbitant fee for overweight luggage — believe me, I’ve had to reluctantly shell out cash more than once. As a precaution, I purchased this small portable digital scale, I haven’t paid any overweight baggage fees since (much to my wallet’s pleasure). Compact enough to pack away into a personal item, the easy-to-use scale can weigh your luggage in both pounds and kilograms. Currently on sale at Amazon for $10, it’s a handy gadget that could potentially save you hundreds of dollars at the airport.

Twelve South AirFly Bluetooth Wireless Audio Transmitter

There’s nothing quite like watching a movie on an international flight with a handful of snacks and a crisp glass of ginger ale, at least in my opinion. However, I’ve had my movie experience ruined a handful of times by the subpar earphones handed out on flights, which can never quite drone out the airplane’s engines or fit right in my ears. This traveler-loved, pocket-sized Bluetooth audio transmitter lets me connect my wireless earphones to the airplane’s seatback television, so I can enjoy crisp audio quality without any wires getting in the way. It has vastly improved my international flight experience, and at a humble $35, is worth every penny.

Samsonite Freeform Hardside Expandable Spinner Carry-on Suitcase

A sturdy carry-on suitcase is always with me whenever I travel internationally, either as my primary luggage or simply for extra space in the (probable) case my European shopping sprees get out of hand. I always make sure that my carry-on is a spinner suitcase, which I find is easier to navigate busy airports and cities with.

While I just invested in the Samsonite DLX Voltage Global spinner carry-on , you can snag this lookalike at Amazon from the same Travel + Leisure -trusted brand. It comes with smart features like expandable sides, TSA-approved locks, and an interior divider pocket. And, with 10,000-plus five-star ratings from Amazon shoppers, it’s not surprising that it’s currently the best seller in the carry-on luggage category . 

Tessan Universal Travel Adapter

A universal travel adapter is a must-have for any international trip, which is why I always have one or two on hand. This one from Tessan is one of my favorites because of its wide coverage — it can work in over 150 countries across Europe, Asia, and Oceania. Plus, it comes with four USB ports that can charge up to five devices at a time, so it’s a great option if you’re traveling with family or friends.

Although the device can be a bit bulky to pack away, I always keep one in my checked suitcase and one in my carry-on or personal item bag in case of long layovers and missed or canceled flights.

Apple AirTags 4-pack

Apple AirTags are my absolute best friends when I travel. Not only do they give me peace of mind when I fly and have layovers, but they’ve also helped me track my lost luggage more times than I can count. I was once able to see that my suitcase had been left behind in Dublin during a layover flying from Boston to Rome, and was able to track it when it eventually arrived in Italy and was making its way to my house via an airport worker. 

I also use them in my everyday life to keep a close eye on my keys and wallet, and have yet to change their battery even though I’ve had them for two years. Although pricey, they’re worth the investment — and the good news is that they’re currently 20 percent off at Amazon.

Amazon Fire 10-inch Tablet

Bibliophiles know the power of a good book and are well acquainted with how easy it can be to lose track of time when you’re engrossed in a story. My paper-thin Amazon Fire tablet, which easily fits into my personal item or carry-on suitcase, is always on me when I travel, and I can easily pass the hours reading a book or two on particularly long flights. 

The Amazon Fire tablet doesn’t just stop at books, though — you can play games (I’m a big fan of in-flight Solitaire), catch a movie or show via Netflix or Disney+, listen to music on Spotify, and even jump on a Zoom call. It’s an incredibly versatile device that’s great for traveling, and to sweeten the deal, it’s currently on sale for $95.

Topbag Family Passport Holder

As a triple citizen, I always carry all my passports with me when I travel, which can be a bulky ordeal. While mine was gifted to me years ago, this TopBag Family Passport Holder is a close match. Capable of holding up to six passports, which is ideal for families or friends traveling together, the wallet also comes with a cash pocket and six card slots so you can keep all your essentials in one, easy-to-reach place. It’s slim enough to fit into a personal item and comes with a handy strap that you can wear around your wrist for easy access. 

Miady Dual USB Portable Chargers 2-pack

This pack of two pocket-sized portable chargers , roughly the same size as an Apple iPhone, is essential for long international flights, especially ones with layovers. I’ve brought these all over the world with me, from Iceland and Ireland to Rome and India. They're small enough to fit into a crossbody bag and each portable charger comes with two USB ports that can charge two devices at a time, which I usually use to juice up my cell phone and Amazon Fire tablet during long flights. Currently on sale for $18, these portable chargers have enough power to get you anywhere you need to be and back, as their near-76,000 five-star ratings can attest to.

Uto 3-in-1 Crossbody Bag

I purchased this crossbody bag for a recent week-long road trip through Ireland , and have since crowned it my official travel purse for its durability, ample storage features, and sleek silhouette. It can easily survive the wear and tear of traveling long distances thanks to its water-and-scratch resistant synthetic-washed leather exterior — seriously, it emerged from my Ireland trip virtually unscathed despite suffering comical amounts of wind, rain, and mud. 

What's more, the crossbody bag comes with three zippered compartments, one of them detachable, plus a removable chest-level coin purse. Inside, I can fit my three passports, wallet, keys, lip balms, hand creams, Apple AirPods, portable charger, and phone cable — with room to spare. The bag’s budget-friendly price tag, now on sale for $23, is just the cherry on top. 

Monogrammed Luggage Tag

Trying to find your suitcase at baggage claim can be tricky, which is why I make mine stand out with this small but chic monogrammed luggage tag. Made from supple PU leather, the black luggage tag is virtually scratch-free and comes with a subtle privacy shield to cover your personal information. It’s an extra step to ensure that my bases are covered in case my luggage gets lost, and it doesn’t hurt that it’s pretty cute, too.

Etronik Weekender Bag

Weekender bags are all the rage these days, and for good reason. They’re sleek, spacious, and easy to carry — essential criteria for any kind of travel. I usually bring my flight attendant-loved Béis Mini Weekender Bag with me on international flights for its sturdy exterior, stiff-zippered bottom shoe compartment, and ample storage space. For those who don’t want to splurge on Béis’ $98 version , you can score this budget-friendly weekender from Amazon-loved brand Etronik (which I also own) is on sale for $36. 

Available in over 20 color and pattern variations, the Etronik Weekender Bag features a bottom zippered shoe compartment, a USB charging port, a toiletry bag, two shoe bags, and a detachable and adjustable shoulder strap. Because of these smart features, which have earned it over 7,000 five-star ratings, I used the bag every weekend for nearly a year when taking four-hour bus rides between Boston and New York City. Even though I’ve now upgraded to Béis, the Etronik bag is still in great shape and ready to go when I need it.

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• Published: 12 June 2024

Ancient genomes reveal insights into ritual life at Chichén Itzá

• Rodrigo Barquera   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-0518-4518 1 , 2   na1 ,
• Oana Del Castillo-Chávez   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-8892-1861 3   na1 ,
• Kathrin Nägele   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-3861-8677 1   na1 ,
• Patxi Pérez-Ramallo   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-1142-4912 4 , 5 , 6   na1   nAff18 ,
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• András Szolek   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-4758-7817 7 , 8 ,
• Adam Benjamin Rohrlach   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4204-5018 1 , 9 ,
• Pablo Librado   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-5974-2189 10 ,
• Ainash Childebayeva   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-3144-6481 1   nAff19 ,
• Raffaela Angelina Bianco   ORCID: orcid.org/0009-0004-6087-8031 1 ,
• Bridget S. Penman 11 ,
• Victor Acuña-Alonzo 2 ,
• Mary Lucas 4 , 6 ,
• Julio César Lara-Riegos 12 ,
• María Ermila Moo-Mezeta 13 ,
• Julio César Torres-Romero 12 ,
• Patrick Roberts   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4403-7548 4 , 6 ,
• Oliver Kohlbacher   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-1739-4598 7 , 14 , 15 , 16 ,
• Christina Warinner 1 , 17 &
• Johannes Krause   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-9144-3920 1  

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• Anthropology
• Archaeology
• Immunogenetics
• Population genetics

The ancient city of Chichén Itzá in Yucatán, Mexico, was one of the largest and most influential Maya settlements during the Late and Terminal Classic periods ( ad  600–1000) and it remains one of the most intensively studied archaeological sites in Mesoamerica 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 . However, many questions about the social and cultural use of its ceremonial spaces, as well as its population’s genetic ties to other Mesoamerican groups, remain unanswered 2 . Here we present genome-wide data obtained from 64 subadult individuals dating to around ad  500–900 that were found in a subterranean mass burial near the Sacred Cenote (sinkhole) in the ceremonial centre of Chichén Itzá. Genetic analyses showed that all analysed individuals were male and several individuals were closely related, including two pairs of monozygotic twins. Twins feature prominently in Mayan and broader Mesoamerican mythology, where they embody qualities of duality among deities and heroes 5 , but until now they had not been identified in ancient Mayan mortuary contexts. Genetic comparison to present-day people in the region shows genetic continuity with the ancient inhabitants of Chichén Itzá, except at certain genetic loci related to human immunity, including the human leukocyte antigen complex, suggesting signals of adaptation due to infectious diseases introduced to the region during the colonial period.

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The ancient Maya city of Chichén Itzá, centrally located in the northern part of the Yucatán Peninsula (Fig. 1a,b ), ranks among the largest and most iconic archaeological sites in Mesoamerica but much about its origins and history remains poorly understood 1 , 2 . First rising to prominence during the Late Classic period ( ad  600–800), Chichén Itzá became the dominant political centre of the northern Maya lowlands during the Terminal Classic ( ad  800–1000), a period when most other Classic Maya sites in the southern and northern lowlands underwent a political collapse. Most of the inscribed calendar dates on carved monuments at Chichén Itzá fall between ad  850 and 875 and the northern ceremonial centre of the site, known as New Chichén, was largely constructed after ad  900 and includes the site’s largest structure, El Castillo , also known as the Temple of Kukulkán. A sacbe (limestone causeway) was constructed to connect New Chichén to the Sacred Cenote 6 , an enormous sinkhole containing abundant ritual offerings, including the remains of more than 200 ritually sacrificed individuals, mostly children 1 , 3 , 7 . Evidence of ritual killing is extensive throughout the site of Chichén Itzá and includes both the physical remains of sacrificed individuals as well as representations in monumental art 8 . Elite activity at Chichén Itzá declined during the eleventh century ad , with a last inscribed calendar date of ad  998 (refs. 9 , 10 ), but the site continued to be a prominent ritual and pilgrimage centre during the colonial period and beyond 11 , 12 , 13 .

a , Location of the Maya region in the Americas. b , Geographical locations of Chichén Itzá and Tixcacaltuyub in the Yucatan Peninsula. c , Stratigraphy for the chultún and the adjacent cave in which the burial was found (adapted from ref. 4 ). d , Location of the chultún within the archaeological site of Chichén Itzá and its relation to El Castillo (adapted from ref. 10 ). Modern roads are marked in light grey; the chultún abuts an airport runway. e , Genetic pairwise mismatch rate (PMR) for child pairs in the chultún identifies 11 close relative pairs (hollow diamonds), including two pairs of monozygotic twins (highlighted in grey). A low overall PMR for unrelated individuals (black triangles) confirms low genetic diversity in the population; only pairs with PMR < 0.20 are visualized in the plot. See Supplementary Fig. 2 for individual annotations.

In 1967, a repurposed chultún containing the remains of more than 100 subadults was discovered near the Sacred Cenote (Fig. 1c,d ) 4 , 14 , 15 . As for cenotes, chultúns (underground cisterns) are associated with water storage and also ritual activity 16 , 17 and they share symbolism with caves 18 . Such subterranean features have long been associated with water, rain and child sacrifice 14 , 19 , 20 and they are widely viewed as access points to the Maya underworld 21 , 22 . Given the location and context of the Chichén Itzá chultún , which was also connected to a small underground cave, it has been speculated to contain children sacrificed to support maize agricultural cycles 19 or given as offerings to the Maya rain deity Chaac 23 . Sixteenth century Spanish colonial accounts and early twentieth century investigations following the dredging of the Sacred Cenote popularized the notion that young women and girls were primarily sacrificed at the site 24 , 25 but more recent osteological analyses indicate that the bodies of both males and females were deposited in the Sacred Cenote 7 , 26 . Systematic investigations of sacrificial assemblages across the Maya region have confirmed that both males and females were subject to ritual killing but, because most sacrificed individuals at Classic Maya sites are juveniles, precise sex distributions cannot be determined using conventional osteological approaches alone 19 , 26 . Sixteenth century Spanish sources record that such children were obtained locally by kidnapping, purchase and gift exchange 19 , 27 , 28 , although recent isotopic studies suggest that at least some individuals within the Sacred Cenote were non-local and may have originated as far away as Honduras or Central Mexico 1 . Nevertheless, despite more than a century of research, much about child sacrifice and the ceremonial use of subterranean features as ritual mass graves at Chichén Itzá remains unknown.

To better understand the origin and biological relationships of the sacrificed children to each other and to present-day inhabitants of the region, here we used a combined bioarchaeological and genomics approach to investigate 64 subadults interred within a chultún near the Sacred Cenote (Fig. 1c ) and compare them to 68 present-day Maya inhabitants of the nearby town of Tixcacaltuyub, as well as to other available ancient and contemporary genetic data from the region. The community of Tixcacaltuyub has been collaborating with our research team for many years and their perspectives informed the development of this manuscript ( Supplementary Methods : ‘Community engagement activities’). Our analyses, comprising of ancient human genetic data analysis, bone collagen stable isotope analysis of carbon and nitrogen and radiocarbon dating (Supplementary Table 1 ) show that all chultún subadults were male and that close relatives were present in the mass burial, including two sets of monozygotic twins. Stable isotope analysis indicates that related children consumed more similar diets and that overall the diet of Chichén Itzá children was comparable to that of other Classic period populations throughout the Maya Lowlands (Supplementary Table 2 and Supplementary Fig. 4 ). Genetic comparison to other ancient and present-day people shows long-term genetic continuity in the Maya region but indicates allele frequency shifts in immunity genes at the human leukocyte antigen (HLA) class II locus, specifically an increase in HLA-DR4 alleles which provide greater resistance to Salmonella enterica infection, the causative agent of an enteric fever previously identified in a colonial-era mass grave in Oaxaca, southern Mexico, which was associated with the 1545 cocoliztli pandemic 29 .

Genome and immune-genes data generation

Bone samples from ancient individuals found in the chultún burial at Chichén Itzá (from here onwards referred to as YCH) were collected, processed and analysed according to protocols designed for ancient DNA (aDNA) work in dedicated facilities 30 . Because not all skeletal elements could be unequivocally assigned to a single individual, only left petrous bones were collected to avoid sampling individuals more than once. Radiocarbon dating ( n  = 26) showed that the chultún was in use for at least 500 years from the initial florescence of the site in the early seventh century ad to its height during the tenth century ad until the mid-twelfth century (Supplementary Fig. 1 and Supplementary Table 1 ).

Ancient DNA was successfully retrieved from all 64 YCH individuals. In addition, DNA was collected from blood samples of 68 modern-day inhabitants of the town Tixcacaltuyub, Yucatán, Mexico (hereafter TIX) to compare modern and ancient inhabitants of the region. The extracted genomic material was built into either uracil DNA glycosylase (UDG)-treated (for YCH) or non-UDG-treated genomic libraries (for TIX) and sequenced to a depth of about 5–11 million reads to assess DNA preservation and authenticity. We then built 11 single-stranded, UDG-treated libraries to further increase the analysable data for a subset of YCH individuals ( Supplementary Methods : ‘Preparation of single-stranded libraries’). We performed quality control assessment to ensure acceptable (less than 5%) contamination amounts with two methods implemented as part of the nf-core/Eager pipeline 31 . All TIX and 56 YCH individuals yielded sufficient human DNA for analysis (more than 0.1%) and after a reconditioning procedure we further enriched these DNA libraries for a panel of 1.2 million ancestry-informative single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs, ‘1,240 K’), the mitochondrial genome (mtDNA) and a panel of immune genes 32 , 33 , 34 . After sequencing the enriched genomic libraries, we obtained about 40 million reads per library; on these data we performed further quality control and conducted population genetics analyses and HLA typing.

Genetic kinship and twins in the chultún

Coverage comparisons of X and Y chromosome SNPs assigned all YCH subadult individuals as genetically male and confirmed the recorded sex for all TIX participants 35 . The pairwise mismatch rate analyses 36 (Fig. 1e and Supplementary Fig. 2 ) for YCH support the presence of two pairs of identical twins (YCH018–YCH019 and YCH033–YCH054) and nine other close relative pairs (YCH016–YCH017, YCH017–YCH018, YCH017–YCH019, YCH034–YCH041, YCH036–YCH038, YCH042–YCH049, YCH047–YCH057, YCH049–YCH057 and YCH059–YCH060). Overall, 25% ( n  = 16) of the analysed children in the ritual interment are closely related to another child within the chultún .

Isotopic patterns in the children’s diets

The δ 13 C and δ 15 N measurements of bone collagen (Supplementary Table 1 and Supplementary Fig. 3 ; also  Supplementary Methods : ‘Stable isotopes analyses’) provided δ 13 C values between −13.9‰ and −7.6‰ (mean and s.d. = −9.9‰ ± 1.5‰) and δ 15 N values ranging from 5.9‰ to 14.0‰ (mean and s.d. = 9.7‰ ± 1.5‰). Overall, these values are similar to those reported at other Classic period Maya Lowland sites (Supplementary Table 2 and Supplementary Fig. 4 ) and are consistent with dietary evidence in the Yucatán Peninsula 37 , 38 and at other Classic Maya sites 39 , 40 , 41 , 42 . It is possible that the diets of some individuals with higher δ 15 N values (for example, YCH004, YCH008, YCH023, YCH039, YCH047 and YCH061) may have included aquatic resources 37 but could also indicate other dietary variations related to social status 43 or result from breastfeeding influence 44 . Without any more contextual information or local baseline isotopic data from associated fauna, it remains challenging to more precisely determine individual diets. Nevertheless, the comparison of our data with published results (more than 450 individuals studied from the Late Classic and Terminal Classic periods) 45 , 46 , 47 suggest that the 54 chultún individuals consumed significant amounts of C 4 terrestrial resources combined with varying amounts of terrestrial C 3 protein and freshwater and/or marine resources. This is consistent with previous archaeological investigations focusing on documented Classic Maya diets 37 , 38 , 39 , 41 , 42 , 48 . The isotopic values of related individuals fall close to each other, suggesting dietary similarity (Supplementary Fig. 5 ).

Genetic continuity in the Maya region

We performed a principal component analysis (PCA) based on worldwide populations and present-day individuals from the Americas 49 (Fig. 2 ). As expected for Mesoamerican populations, YCH cluster closely together on a worldwide PCA with unadmixed Indigenous American populations. Some individuals from TIX are shifted towards Europeans, suggesting genetic admixture (Fig. 2 ). When both YCH and TIX are projected onto present-day Indigenous American populations from North, Central and South America 50 they cluster with present-day Maya (Fig. 2a ). Unsupervised admixture analyses using a subset of populations from Africa, Europe, Oceania and the Americas (Fig. 2b,c ) showed no signs of admixture in the YCH individuals and low contributions of European and African ancestry for the TIX individuals, with some ( n  = 18) showing no indications of non-Indigenous American genetic contributions. It is of interest to note that a genetic component maximized in ancient populations from the Caribbean region is present in both ancient Mayans from Belize 49 , 51 and YCH but it is nearly absent in the genetic make-up of present-day Mayans 52 and TIX. Admixture with other populations from Mesoamerica (where the component has not yet been detected), or genetic drift, could explain this component fading away in present-day Mayans.

a , PCA showing ancient Chichén Itzá (YCH) individuals and present-day Tixcacaltuyub (TIX) in a worldwide PCA plot. b , c , Admixture analyses showing the clustering from k  = 4 for YCH, TIX and different continental genetic sources ( b ) and the clustering for the newly produced samples at k  = 8 (lowest cross-validation errors), with a more comprehensive list of Indigenous American populations ( c ). d , e , Outgroup F 3 statistics in the form f 3 (Mbuti; YCH, X ) where X are present-day groups from the Americas ( d ) and published ancient groups and individuals ( e ). High similarities are indicated by warmer colours; low similarities by darker colours. f , g , Outgroup F 3 statistics in the form f 3 (Mbuti; TIX, X ) where X are present-day groups from the Americas ( f ) and published ancient groups and individuals ( g ). High similarities are indicated by warmer colours, low similarities by darker colours. A list for the populations/individuals used in these analyses can be found in the Supplementary Information : source populations for the population genetics analyses.

To test the genetic affinities to present-day and ancient American populations, we calculated an outgroup F 3 -statistic of the form f 3 (outgroup, target, test), using Mbuti from Sub-Saharan Africa 52 , 53 as an outgroup, a panel of Indigenous American populations as the target and either TIX or YCH as the test. The highest genetic similarities detected for both YCH and TIX (Fig. 2 ) included Central and South American groups. TIX share the highest drift with the ancient individuals from Chichén Itzá (Fig. 2 ). Among the ancient populations tested, a 9,300-year-old individual from the Mayahak Cab Pek site in the Maya Mountains in southern Belize 49 and other analysed individuals, also from Belize but from a more recent context 51 , are genetically most similar to the ancient Chichén Itzá individuals, suggesting long-term genetic continuity in the Maya region. We tested if YCH and TIX are closer to each other than to other Indigenous American populations using an F 4 -statistic of the form f 4 (Mbuti, TIX, target, YCH), using a subset of the highest F 3 -scoring Indigenous American populations. Our results indicate that a few members of the target Indigenous American populations we tested are more closely related to TIX (Extended Data Fig. 1 ). This may suggest that, even though TIX are genetically related to the ancient inhabitants of Chichén Itzá, the genetically closest population to Chichén Itzá may no longer exist or has not been sampled yet.

We then applied qpWave 50 , an ancestry composition modelling approach that evaluates the likelihood that two individuals/groups derive from the same ancestry source relative to a given set of population references. The resulting P values (Kaqchikel: 0.08, ‘Maya’ (from ref. 54 ): 0.755) suggest that YCH and present-day Mayan groups share the same ancestry. TIX can be modelled as a mixture of YCH, Spanish and Yoruba; the working model ( P  = 0.11) suggests a composition of 92% Indigenous American component, 7% of European genetic contribution and 0.03% African ancestry. Using a maximum-likelihood test for genetic continuity 55 , we could formally test that TIX is a direct genetic descendant population from YCH (average genetic drift across individuals: about 0.5, P approximately 1.0 for each TIX individual). For 53 YCH and all 68 TIX individuals, the mtDNA haplogroup could be determined and the frequency of haplogroups (A, B, C and D) is almost identical between both groups. However, from the haplotypes, which represent a higher level of genetic resolution, it is clear that the diversity of mtDNA is higher in YCH than in TIX (Supplementary Fig. 6 ). The mtDNA haplogroups and haplotype lineages correspond to those previously reported for both ancient 56 , 57 and present-day 58 , 59 Maya. All Y chromosome (Y-Chr) haplotypes (Supplementary Fig. 6 ) recovered from the Chichén Itzá individuals ( n  = 51) are part of the Q family (prevalent among Indigenous Americans), whereas more than half of the TIX Y-Chr ( n  = 19) are European (47.37%) and Middle Eastern (5.26%), reflecting a strong sex bias in the admixture process during and after the colonial period, as has been previously described in other Latin American populations 60 , 61 , 62 , 63 .

Genomics of metabolic pathways in Mayans

Using the SNP data generated for both populations, we calculated locus-specific branch lengths (LSBL) 64 , 65 to test for genome-wide selection for both YCH and TIX. We performed two LSBL comparisons: first, YCH versus Iberians from Spain (from the 1000 Genomes project 66 ) and Han from China (from the 1000 Genomes project); and second, TIX versus Iberians and YCH to test for selection separate from YCH and Iberians. Among the top 0.5% annotated SNPs, we found 29 genes involved in lipid metabolism for YCH, including the previously reported fatty acid desaturases ( FAD s) genes 67 and we found 20 genes for TIX, including FTO alpha-ketoglutarate dependent dioxygenase ( FTO ) and transcription factor 7 like 2 ( TCF7L2 ), both of which have been associated with metabolic traits in Latin American and particularly Mayan, populations 68 , 69 , 70 (Supplementary Tables 3 – 5 ). The SNPs of certain genes, like those belonging to the adenylate cyclase family (ADCY), were also among the top 0.5% for TIX, which is consistent with previous reports 71 , but not among YCH, which may point to differential selection before and after the colonial period. We then searched for enriched gene ontology pathways using GoWinda 72 . Although both groups exhibit enriched (adjusted P  < 0.05) gene ontology terms associated with metabolic pathways (Supplementary Tables 6 and 7 ), YCH shows an increase in fertility-associated biological processes (such as oogenesis, steroid hormone mediated signalling pathway, ovulation cycle and oestrous cycle, among others), whereas cholesterol- and lipid-metabolic pathway terms (such as negative regulation of lipid biosynthetic process, cholesterol homeostasis and sterol homeostasis) appear more prominently in TIX.

HLA genes point to shifts in immunity

For genes involved in immunity, we could detect 15 and 7 HLA region SNPs among the top 0.5% annotated SNPs for YCH and TIX, respectively, showing signs of positive selection (Fig. 3 ). None of the SNPs were shared by both YCH and TIX and none was found to be under selection in a previous study in ancient and modern Indigenous Americans from the Northwest Coast of North America 73 . The SNPs found on the YCH individuals are located in the HLA-B , -DRB1 , -DQA1 , -DQA2, -S, -X, HLA-DOA and -DQB1 genes or nearby regions, whereas TIX SNPs are found in or around the HLA-C , -DQA1 , - DQA2 and -DQB1 genes (Supplementary Table 8 ). Using a multilocus model of host–pathogen co-evolution with allele-specific adaptive immunity, it has been shown that, if selection from a pathogen maintains associations between host recognition loci (such as in the HLA system), alleles at those loci would not only be in linkage disequilibrium but might also exhibit non-overlapping associations 74 . For that reason, we analysed the pattern of non-overlapping associations 74 , 75 (Fig. 3 and Supplementary Figs. 7 and 8 ) to test for pathogen-driven selection on HLA associations in YCH, TIX and the previously analysed Lacandon Mayan from the highlands of Chiapas, southeast Mexico 76 . We measured the \({f}_{{\rm{adj}}}^{* }\) metric (a parameter used to rank the strength of non-overlapping associations; Supplementary Methods : ‘Non-overlapping HLA associations’) 74 between different pairs of HLA loci. We also measured the difference between our observed amounts of non-overlap and that which would be observed for randomized allelic associations, in units of standard deviations.

a – c , Pattern of non-overlap associations for the genes in the HLA region as measured by F * adj (heatmaps on the left) and the difference between those observed amounts of non-overlap and randomized allelic associations, in units of standard deviation (heatmaps on the right), for ancient Mayans from Chichén Itzá (YCH) ( a ), present-day Mayans from Tixcacaltuyub (TIX) ( b ) and present-day Lacandon Mayans from Chiapas (southeast Mexico) 76 ( c ). d , Manhattan plots of genome-wide LSBL values for YCH (top) and TIX (bottom). HLA loci are shown in red. Top 0.1% (red line) and 0.5% (blue line) of all statistics are indicated.

When compared with the ancient data, the present-day Maya data seem to have a higher degree of non-overlap (Fig. 3a–c ), which would suggest that the analysed modern populations have experienced selection on the HLA locus, potentially due to pathogen exposure. When we compare the HLA allelic frequencies (Supplementary Tables 9 – 19 ) of YCH and TIX, we detect a statistically significant shift ( P corr  < 0.05) in eight alleles: three HLA class I alleles and five HLA class II alleles, after correcting for several comparisons. There is a significant decrease in the frequency of alleles HLA-B*40:02 (0.2447 versus 0.0821; P corr  = 0.0296), HLA-DQA1*03:03 (0.1277 versus 0.0224; P corr  < 0.0218) and HLA-DQB1*04:02 (0.1809 versus 0.0299; P corr  = 0.0249), whereas HLA-A*68:03 (0.0532 versus 0.2687; P corr  = 0.0003), HLA-B*39:05 (0.0532 versus 0.2687; P corr  = 0.0437), HLA-C*07:02 (0.2021 versus 0.3955; P corr  = 0.0369), HLA-DQB1*03:02 (0.4894 versus 0.7015; P corr  = 0.0177) and HLA-DRB1*04:07 (0.2340 versus 0.4627; P corr  = 0.0114) increased in frequency in TIX when compared to YCH. For TIX, we found that 88% of HLA haplotypes have been reported previously in Indigenous American populations, 10% of which are probably of European origin and 2% of which represent African haplotypes. All YCH HLA haplotypes are consistent with those found in Indigenous American populations, particularly among Maya 76 , 77 , 78 .

The HLA class II region has been previously implicated in selection events before and after the contact with Europeans in the sixteenth century in the Americas 73 and in the resistance to S. enterica infection 79 , 80 , 81 . Hence, we were interested to test how the alleles for which there is a significant shift would react to peptides derived from Salmonella . To do so, we selected 18 Salmonella proteins for which there is evidence of immunogenicity in humans and presented in silico peptides derived from them to the HLA class II molecules found both in YCH and TIX (Supplementary Table 20 and Supplementary Methods : ‘In silico binding prediction assays’) using the NetMHCIIPan binding prediction method 82 implemented in the Immune Epitope Database (IEDB) Analysis Resource ( http://tools.iedb.org/mhcii ). Strong binding means the bound peptide is more likely to initiate an immune response against that peptide, whereas weaker binders are not as successful in eliciting an immune response. The best HLA-DR strong binders were HLA-DRB1*14:02, HLA-DRB1*04:07, HLA-DRB1*16:02 and HLA-DRB1*04:17; whereas the best strong binders for HLA-DQ were HLA-DQA1*05:01/DQB1*03:01, HLA-DQA1*05:05/DQB1*03:03 and HLA-DQA1*03:01/DQB1*03:03. The HLA molecules with the fewest strongly bound peptides are represented by HLA-DRB1*14:06, HLA-DRB1*04:04, HLA-DRB1*04:05 for HLA-DR and HLA-DQA1*03:03/DQB1*04:02, HLA-DQA1*04:01/DQB1*04:02 and HLA-DQA1*03:01/DQB1*03:02 for HLA-DQ. Overall, the lowest number of peptides, either strongly or weakly presented, by HLA class II molecules correspond to HLA-DR alleles DRB1*08:02, DRB1*04:04 and DRB1*14:06 and the same HLA-DQ molecules listed before. Broadly, the frequencies of HLA-DRB1*04:07 (strong binder) and HLA-DQB1*03:02 (weak binder, in linkage disequilibrium with HLA-DRB1*04:07) go up in TIX, whereas HLA-DQA1*03:03 and HLA-DQB1*04:02 go down in TIX and are weak binders.

Archaeogenetics offers an opportunity to investigate aspects of past Maya ritual practice, biological kinship, sex and genetic history that can be difficult to infer using more conventional archaeological methods. Here we investigated the subadult remains of 64 individuals who were ritually interred over a period of 500 years in a Classic period chultún located near the Sacred Cenote at the ancient Maya city of Chichén Itzá. In contrast to the human remains in the Sacred Cenote, we found that all analysed subadults in the chultún were male, demonstrating a strong preference for the ritual sacrifice of male children in this context. Genetic analysis also showed the presence of related individuals within the chultún , including two sets of monozygotic twins and nine other close relative pairs. As such twins occur spontaneously in only 0.4% of the general population 83 , the presence of two sets of identical twins in the chultún is much higher than would be expected by chance. Overall, 25% of the children had a close relative within the assemblage, suggesting that the sacrificed children may have been specifically selected for their close biological kinship. Moreover, this may underestimate the true number of relatives present in chultún as only 64 of the estimated 106 individuals in the chultún had a preserved petrous portion of the left temporal bone available for analysis. The further finding that the closely related children in each set seem to have consumed a similar diet and died at a similar age suggests that they have been sacrificed during the same ritual event as a pair or twin sacrifice.

Twins are especially auspicious in Mayan mythology and twin sacrifice is a central theme in the sacred K’iche’ Mayan Book of Council, the Popol Vuh 84 , a book whose antecedents can be traced to the Maya Preclassic period 85 . In the Popol Vuh , the twins Hun Hunapu and Vucub Hunahpu descend into the underworld and are sacrificed by the gods following defeat in a ballgame. The head of Hun Hunapu is then hung in a calabash tree, where it impregnates a maiden who gives birth to a second set of twins, Hunapu and Xbalanque. These twins, known as the Hero Twins, then go on to avenge their father and uncle by undergoing repeated cycles of sacrifice and resurrection to outwit the gods of the underworld. The Hero Twins and their adventures are amply represented in Classic Maya art 5 and given that subterranean structures were viewed as entrances to the underworld, the twin and relative sacrifices within the chultún at Chichén Itzá may recall rituals involving the Hero Twins.

In comparing the subadults in the chultún to other ancient and present-day populations in the Maya region, we find evidence of long-term genetic continuity, which also suggests that the sacrificed children and sibling pairs at Chichén Itzá were obtained from nearby ancient Maya communities. Among present-day individuals at TIX, we detect evidence of European and African admixture since the Contact period. Although ancestry contributions from non-Indigenous American sources are low at the genome-wide level, they are strongly asymmetrical with respect to uniparental markers. Whereas all mtDNA haplogroups are Indigenous American, more than half of the TIX Y-Chr are non-Indigenous American (mostly European and Middle Eastern/Mediterranean in origin, consistent with previous reports 60 , 61 ), indicating that a strong male bias towards non-Indigenous American ancestries occurred during the Contact period.

The genetic similarity among Maya groups determined in the population genetic analyses (admixture profiles, F 3 and F 4 and genetic continuity test) allowed us to explore changes in genomic regions encoding functional variants to test for selection in ancient (YCH) and present-day (TIX) Maya. Our findings support previous hypotheses that both lipid metabolism 86 , 87 and fertility 86 are traits that have been recently selected for in Indigenous Americans, probably due to the strong bottlenecks and caloric restrictions experienced by these populations during the early colonial and settlement periods 86 , 88 . The observed standard deviation of the δ 15 N values (s.d. = 1.5) obtained from the individuals analysed at Chichén Itzá is the highest of all the Late Classic and Terminal Classic Maya sites analysed so far (Supplementary Figs. 3 and 4 and Supplementary Table 2 ). The overall picture from the reconstruction of palaeodiet in the Maya region shows the consumption of significant amounts of C 4 foods, probably maize but with geographic variations reflected in microenvironmental differences in available foods and variability in trade networks 45 , 47 . To explain this variability, it is possible that a considerable portion of the individuals sacrificed at Chichén Itzá may be non-local Maya consuming slightly different diets. Alternatively, previous research indicates that the dietary patterns of the Classic Maya elite tend to exhibit greater variability than those of the general population over time 43 , 47 , 89 . This variability is also reflected in the standard deviations of δ 13 C and δ 15 N observed in other locations, such as Altun Ha or Baking Pot (Supplementary Fig. 4 and Supplementary Table 2 ). Therefore, the differences in protein intake observed in the analysed Chichén Itzá individuals studied could also indicate variations in social status. It also cannot necessarily be excluded that some of the observed δ 15 N variability is a result of breastfeeding influence 90 , as the sampled remains come from individuals estimated to be between 3 and 6 years of age. Thus, caution in interpreting specific dietary variations is warranted in the absence of other contextual information. Our data indicate that those individuals whose DNA showed a close genetic relationship had more similar δ 13 C and δ 15 N values, suggesting that they may have been raised in an extended family network that provided similar care and feeding (Supplementary Figs. 3 and 5 and Supplementary Table 1 ).

The values for the genetic drift obtained from the genetic continuity test mean that the TIX ancestors went through a serious population decline sometime in the last 1,000 years or so. Over the course of the sixteenth century, it has been demonstrated that wars, famines and epidemics resulted in a population decline, potentially as high as 90%, from 10–20 million Indigenous people living in Mexico at the time of European contact to only 2 million people by the end of the sixteenth century 91 , 92 , 93 , 94 , 95 , 96 . Infectious diseases, such as smallpox, measles, mumps, influenza, tabardillo or matlalzahuatl (typhus), typhoid and enteric fever, rubella, pertussis, garrotillo (severe diphtheria), endemic dysentery, tertiary fevers (malaria) and syphilis 29 , 97 , 98 , 99 , 100 , 101 are argued to have caused large-scale outbreaks in colonial Mesoamerica, significantly contributing to population decline and possibly causing selection at immune-related loci. The HLA class II region has been reported previously to have undergone selection events during the colonial period in the Americas 73 . Notably, we find that three of the alleles whose frequencies change when we compare YCH to TIX are part of the HLA class II region, a finding that is further supported by the SNPs found in the LSBL analyses. One of those alleles (HLA-DRB1*04:07) belongs to an allele group (HLA-DR4) that has been previously reported to be associated with resistance to enteric fever caused by S. enterica subspecies in South America 81 and East Asia 80 . Recently, an archaeogenetic study identified the presence of S. enterica sp. Paratyphi C in a mass burial associated with the ad  1545 cocoliztli pandemic, suggesting that it was at least one of the causative agents of this pandemic 29 , which had the highest mortality of all recorded colonial-era epidemics. Genomic analysis of ancient S. enterica strains strongly supports an introduction to the Americas during the sixteenth century 102 .

The observed increase of the HLA-DR4 allele group among present-day Maya and Mexicans in general 103 , is consistent with selection caused by an epidemic event and subsequent sustained exposure to the pathogen. Further examination of the non-overlapping associations between HLA alleles likewise agrees with the present-day Maya populations having undergone pathogen selection, which has driven their HLA associations to be less overlapping than for the YCH. The in silico binding prediction assays also point to HLA-DRB1*04:07 as a strong binder for Salmonella -derived peptides, whereas HLA-DQB1*04:02 and HLA-DQB1*03:03, significantly reduced in present-day Mayans, are weaker binders for the same peptides. Considered together, each line of evidence points to selection event(s) occurring in the HLA region in response to an epidemic event during the colonial period. Such selection would be expected in the face of the intensity of the 1545 cocoliztli pandemic and the high number of epidemic events documented in the Maya region since the beginning of the sixteenth century 104 , 105 , 106 . Although it cannot be ruled out that haplotypes with non-overlapping combinations of alleles survived a non-disease related bottleneck by chance, such a scenario would probably result in an increased frequency of alleles already present in the ancient population, which is not what we observe.

Our study shows an intimate portrait of Late and Terminal Classic Maya children at Chichén Itzá, suggesting that the genomic legacy of the ancient inhabitants of this site is still present in communities inhabiting the region surrounding this ancient city. The discovery of two sets of identical twins, as well as other close relatives, in a ritual mass burial of male children suggests that young boys may have been selected for sacrifice because of their biological kinship and the importance of twins in Maya mythology. We show that, at a genome-wide level, the present-day Maya of Tixcacaltuyub exhibit genetic continuity with the ancient Maya who once inhabited Chichén Itzá and we demonstrate through several lines of evidence the involvement of the HLA region in a pathogen-driven selection event(s) probably caused by infectious diseases brought into the Americas by Europeans during the colonial period.

Archaeological and geographical context

Chichén Itzá was one of the largest and most influential Maya cities of the Terminal Classic Period and today stands as an iconic archaeological site among the most representative of pre-Hispanic monumental architecture in the Americas (Fig. 1 ). The architecture of the site consists of several different styles, with some of the structures resembling those found in Central Mexico (Teotihuacan, Tula) and in the Puuc and Chenes regions (northeastern and central Yucatan, respectively) of the Maya lowlands 107 . The Maya Puuc style represents the second phase of the Florescent period in the Yucatan Peninsula ( ad  750–800) 107 , 108 . Ceramic types and epigraphic and radiometric data suggest that the city emerged as a chief regional political centre in the first half of the nineth century and stayed as such until probably the first half of the eleventh century 108 , 109 . The ancient samples used in this study belonged to individuals whose skeletons were recovered from the archaeological excavations of a chultún (cistern) connected to a natural cave within the archaeological site of Chichén Itzá, Yucatán, Mexico. Chultúns were mostly used from the Middle Preclassic to the Late Classic-Postclassic periods ( ad  1000–1600) in Mesoamerica from the northern Maya lowlands of the Yucatan peninsula to modern-day Belize and Guatemala in the southern Maya lowlands 16 , 110 . The sampled skeletons, which have been studied using anthropometry and osteology guidelines at the Centro INAH Yucatán, were recovered between April and June 1967, during the construction of a new runway close to El Castillo (‘The Castle’, the main basament of the archaeological site and a building with special calendrical significance 4 , 111 ) and 300 m northeast to the Sacred Cenote of Chichén Itzá. The chultún had stones that had been worked in the style that characterized the Florescent period, which would indicate that it had been built around the Late or Terminal Classic periods of Chichén Itzá 4 , 110 . The chamber and the adjacent cave contained many skeletal remains, some of them in anatomical position. The many skeletons and the position in which they were found, as well as them being covered by mostly undisturbed bark and limestone powder 4 , are mostly consistent with a mixed secondary/primary burial with periodic clearance, which points to the burial having a cultural motivation, probably as an offering 4 related to an important and recurring ceremony 4 , 14 . There was a minimum of 106 skeletons of infants and young children (according to the number of temporal bones) without any apparent ordering or anatomical context, except for a group of skulls and skullcaps aligned from north to south from the wall separating the chamber and the cave to the southern limit of the cave 14 . Many ceramic and clay objects, as well as animal bone remains, were also found in the cave 4 . The ceramic styles and the archaeological context indicate that the chultún was used during the Florescent period, contemporary to the use of another ritual cave near Chichén Itzá known as Balankanché ( ad  860 ± 130) 4 , 112 . A radiocarbon test on a sample of the bark covering the bones from the chultún burial has also suggested a use date of around ad  920 ± 60 (ref. 107 ). However, our 14 C dates (Supplementary Fig. 2 ) suggest that the ritual burial was performed both before (around ad  600) and after (around ad  1100) the Florescent period. According to the age determination by tooth eruption method 113 , most (about 50%) of the subadult individuals were found to belong to the age group of 3–6 years old 4 . The fact that the age of the children differs from the age group normally related to death in children associated with infectious diseases according to palaeodemography 19 , 113 , 114 , 115 further supports the interpretation of this burial as a sacrificial offering 4 .

The biological samples from present-day Maya were obtained from individuals of self-reported Native American Maya ancestry from Tixcacaltuyub. The village of Tixcacaltuyub, part of the municipality of Yaxcabá, is located 90 km southeast of Merida, 16 km off Sotuta and is located 55 km southeast of Chichén Itzá (Fig. 1 ). It has around 2,100 inhabitants. Ethical approval for the collection of blood samples from individuals from Tixcacaltuyub, Yucatán, Mexico, was granted by the Committee of Ethics and Research, Autonomous University of Yucatán (UADY), Mexico. All subjects were informed about the objectives and methods used and signed an informed consent form. To avoid potential bias, participants with any HLA-associated clinical condition or cancer 116 , 117 were excluded.

Inclusion and ethics

The community of Tixcacaltuyub self-identifies as a Mayan community and has been in a years-long cooperative relationship with the Chemistry and Nursing Faculties of UADY, Mérida, Yucatán, following projects investigating the relationship between health and lifestyle in the community. J.C.L.R., M.E.M.M. and J.C.T.R., together with C. Tzec-Puch, have been working in collaboration with the community to communicate results of clinical tests and to develop health interventions in Tixcacaltuyub. As a result of these interventions, healthcare barriers and opportunities have been identified and work is now underway with the active participation of the community to implement a co-responsible model of healthcare. In April 2023, J.C.L.R. and R.B. visited Tixcacaltuyub to hold meetings with participants and elementary, high school and UADY students to return the results of the genetic findings and to collect community feedback, including how they reconcile these results with their own views. Feedback from these engagements has been incorporated into the final manuscript ( Supplementary Methods : ‘Community engagement activities’). As part of our strategies for outreach and making our results available to a broader audience, we included a non-peer reviewed, Spanish translation of the main manuscript (Supplementary Note  1 ).

Individuals and samples

We acknowledge the Council of Archaeology, National Institute of Anthropology and History (INAH, Mexico City, Mexico) for the permit granted to analyse the individuals from the Chichén Itzá Chultun collection (project: Caracterización genética de una muestra de población de Chichén Itzá para el periodo Clásico Tardío a partir del análisis del ADN ; official notice no. 401.1 S.3-2017/482; 10.03.2017). We analysed the material recovered from the left petrous bones of 64 individuals (YCH) from Chichén Itzá. The bone specimens were collected under controlled conditions in the Osteology Laboratory of the Centro INAH Yucatán with a protocol devoted to minimize contamination. Photographic records of the samples were maintained throughout the whole procedure. The present-day DNA was extracted from blood samples obtained from 68 unrelated adult individuals (TIX) from Tixcacaltuyub, Yucatán, Mexico under a protocol approved by the Committee of Ethics and Research, UADY, granting permit to collect blood samples and carry out analyses on the genetic material obtained from such samples (project: Bienestar Comunitario: Proyecto de capacitación para la autogestión de la salud de personas con DT2 y sus familias, en la comunidad de Tixcacaltuyub y Yaxcabá ; official notice no. F-FENC-SAC-14/REV: 04; registry no. 09/17) and performed according to the requisites of the Helsinki Declaration (2008) and the General Health Law of Mexico. For YCH, bone powder (about 90 mg) was obtained from the densest part of each petrous bone in facilities dedicated to ancient DNA protocols and after a bleach/rinse and ultraviolet decontamination protocol 30 . For TIX, 5 ml of peripheral blood were obtained by venepuncture after each participant was informed about the procedure, the aim of the protocol and the potential risks, and after signing a consent letter. For TIX, the DNA was extracted in a dedicated laboratory at UADY. Their samples were anonymized from this point onwards.

14 C dating

According to the report issued by The Curt-Engelhorn-Centre for Archaeometry (Mannheim, Germany), the portions of the petrous bone of 26 YCH samples were pretreated and analysed using a standardized procedure. Collagen was extracted from the bone samples (approximately 1 g, using a modified version of the Longin method 118 ), purified by ultrafiltration (fraction greater than 30 kD) and freeze-dried. The collagen was then combusted to CO 2 in an elemental analyser. The CO 2 was then converted catalytically to graphite and analysed using a MICADAS-type AMS system (Ionplus AG). The isotopic ratios 14 C/ 12 C and 13 C/ 12 C of samples, calibration standard (oxalic acid II), blanks and control standards were measured simultaneously in the AMS system. 14 C-ages are normalized to δ 13 C = −25‰ (ref. 119 ) with a typical uncertainty of 2‰ and calibrated using the dataset IntCal20 and the software Oxcal (v.4.3.2) 120 , 121 .

Stable isotope analyses

Direct insight into dietary trends among past populations enables the investigation of connections between diet and social status, cultural customs linked to food, environmental impacts on subsistence and perhaps even individual mobility 122 , 123 . Measurements of bone collagen δ 13 C and δ 15 N disproportionately reflect the protein component of an individual’s diet during the period of tissue formation and, to a lesser extent, the lipid and carbohydrate sources 124 . To reconstruct the diet of the subadult individuals from Chichén Itzá studied, we analysed bone collagen from temporal and petrous bones (Supplementary Fig. 4 ). Collagen was extracted using a standard procedure 125 ( Supplementary Methods ). The atomic C:N ratio along with the collagen yields were used to determine the quality of collagen preservation. Collagen yields of more than 1% in weight are considered acceptable for carbon and nitrogen values 126 , whereas the C:N ratio should range from 2.9 to 3.6 for archaeological samples 127 (Supplementary Table 1 ).

DNA extraction

For YCH, the bone powder was decalcified and proteins were digested by an overnight incubation (more than 16 h) at 37 °C in a buffer containing EDTA and Proteinase K 30 . The DNA was purified from the supernatant by a silica column-based method using a silica column for high volumes assay (High Pure Viral Nucleic Acid Large Volume Kit, Roche Molecular Systems). DNA was eluted in 100 µl of TET (10 mM Tris, 1 mM EDTA and 0.05% Tween) and frozen at −20 °C until library preparation 128 . For the contemporary participants, 5 ml of peripheral blood were collected in BD Vacutainer blood collection tubes containing K 2 -EDTA (Becton, Dickinson and Company) and the DNA was extracted using the Quick-DNA Miniprep Plus kit (Zymo Research Corporation) following the developers’ instructions. Because our protocols are optimized for short-length aDNA and to avoid potential bias through laboratory methods, we sheared the DNA extracted from modern individuals using ultrasonic DNA shearing to an average length comparable to that of aDNA. Therefore, 50 μl of a 50 ng μl −1 dilution of each of the modern DNA samples were sheared to an average fragment length of 150 base pairs using a Covaris M220 Focused ultrasonicator (Covaris).

Library preparation

We built non-UDG-treated libraries using 15 μl of each YCH extract to assess the authenticity of the extracted DNA after obtaining the characteristic damage plots associated with aDNA 129 . We then used 20 μl of each YCH extract to build UDG-half libraries with Illumina-specific adaptors following a modified double-stranded library preparation protocol as previously described 130 . We built non-UDG-treated libraries for TIX extracts using 20 μl of each modern DNA extract. Both YCH and TIX libraries were quantified using quantitative PCR (qPCR) with the IS7 and IS8 primers in a quantification assay using a DyNAmo SYBR Green qPCR Kit (Thermo Fisher Scientific) on the LightCycler 96 platform (Roche Diagnostics).

For DNA extracts from the individuals for which the data obtained by sequencing the UDG-treated libraries was not enough, we used a new library protocol that uses directional splinted ligation of Illumina P5 and P7 adaptors to convert natively single-stranded DNA and heat-denatured double-stranded DNA into sequencing libraries in a single enzymatic reaction using the fully automated version of the protocol 131 , 132 , 133 . We followed the protocol as described by the authors using 25 μl of DNA extract for each individual ( Supplementary Methods : ‘Preparation of single-stranded libraries’).

Each library was identified with the respective pair of indexes in double-100 μl reactions using PfuTurbo DNA Polymerase (Agilent Technologies) for the double-stranded libraries and AccuPrime Pfx DNA Polymerase (Thermo Fisher Scientific). The indexed products for each library were pooled, purified over silica columns using the MinElute PCR Purification Kit (QIAGEN N.V.), eluted in 44 µl of TET and again qPCR quantified, now using the IS5 and IS6 primers. Conditioning for sequencing included the amplification of the purified product in 4 × 100 µl reactions using Herculase II Fusion DNA Polymerase (Agilent Technologies) following the manufacturer’s specifications with 0.3 µM of each IS5/IS6 primer, following a purification over silica columns also using the MinElute PCR Purification Kit and elution in a final volume of 22 µl of TET. A total of 2 ml of the conditioned product were diluted 1:10 and quantified using the Agilent 2100 Bioanalyzer DNA 1000 protocol (Agilent Technologies). Independent, equimolar (10 mM final concentration) pools of YCH libraries, TIX libraries and extraction and libraries blanks were then prepared for shotgun sequencing on the Illumina HiSeq 4000 Systems platform (Illumina) 134 , 135 . YCH libraries were sequenced to 5 million reads depth, whereas TIX libraries were sequenced to 11 million reads depth and then all of them were analysed to obtain basic quality control parameters using nf-core/eager v.2.3.4 (ref. 31 ).

Whole-genome and immune-genes captures

Using an in-solution capture approach based on modified immortalized probe sequences 136 , target immunity genes sequences, mtDNA, Y chromosome or a panel of 1,237,207 SNPs were enriched from the total DNA in the sequencing libraries 32 , 33 , 137 , 138 , 139 , 140 . After enrichment, captured library pools were paired-end sequenced on the Illumina Hiseq 4000 (Illumina) platform with 75 cycles providing about 20 million reads per assay.

Quality control and data processing

For both YCH and TIX libraries, we performed analyses of the captured sequence data using nf-core/eager v.2.3.4 (ref. 31 ). AdapterRemoval v.2 (ref. 141 ) was used to trim adaptor sequences and to remove adaptor dimers and low-quality sequence reads (minimum length, 30; minimum base quality, 20). Preprocessed sequences were mapped to the human genome assembly GRCh37 (hg19) from the Genome Reference Consortium 142 using BWA v.0.7.12 (ref. 143 ) and a seed length of 32. In the case of the ancient samples, the C to T misincorporation frequencies typical of aDNA were obtained using mapDamage 2.0 (ref. 144 ) to assess the authenticity of the aDNA fragments from the half-UDG-treated libraries. Genetic sex of the analysed individuals was assigned using SNP capture data by calculating the ratio of average X chromosomal and Y chromosomal coverage to the average autosomal coverage normalized by the chromosome length at the targeted SNPs 35 . Samples with an X rate between 0.35 and 0.55 and a Y rate between 0.4 and 0.7 were confirmed male. Analysis of next generation sequencing data(ANGSD) was used to estimate nuclear contamination, as males are expected to be homozygous at each X chromosome position 145 . We used samtools mpileup (parameters –q 30 –Q 30 –B) to generate a pileup file from the merged sequence data of each individual and used a custom script (pileupCaller v.8.2.2; ref. 146 ) to genotype the individuals, using a pseudo-haploid random draw approach. For each position on our capture panel, a random read was drawn for each individual and the allele of that read was assumed to be the homozygous genotype of the individual at that position. To compare with available data from Mesoamerican and Central American populations, we merged our SNPs to the 593,124 SNPs of the Human Origins dataset 52 . Only individuals retaining more than 20,000 SNPs on this assay were kept for downstream analyses.

Uniparental markers

The mtDNA haplogroups were determined mapping reads to the revised Cambridge reference sequence 147 . For the resulting sequences, we used HaploGrep2 (ref. 148 ) and HAPLOFIND 149 to assign and confirm the corresponding mtDNA haplogroups (Supplementary Fig. 6 ). For the Y-haplogroup assignments, we created pileups of reads for each individual which mapped to Y chromosome (Y-Chr) SNPs as listed on the ISOGG Y-DNA Haplogroup Tree (v.15.73; https://isogg.org/tree/ ). We then manually assigned Y-Chr haplogroups for each individual based on the most downstream SNP retrieved after evaluating the presence of upstream mutations along the Y-Chr haplogroup phylogeny (Supplementary Fig. 6 ). Full mtDNA haplogroups and Y-Chr genotypes can be found in Supplementary Tables 9 (YCH) and 10 (TIX).

Genome-wide selection scans

Using the ancient (YCH; n  = 64) and present-day (TIX; n  = 68) genomic data, we performed two LSBL comparisons: first YCH versus Iberians from Spain ( n  = 102) and Han from China ( n  = 103) from the 1000 Genomes project 66 and then TIX versus Iberians and YCH to test for selection separate from YCH and Iberians. After quality control filtering, we removed individual YCH046 based on its position on the PCA. Sex chromosomes were not analysed, SNPs with minor allele frequencies less than 0.01 were excluded, as well as individuals with more than 97% missing data and finally we pruned SNPs for linkage disequilibrium using the following command: --indep-pairwise 200 25 0.4. The top 0.5% SNPs were annotated with biomaRt (release 3.15) 150 . LSBLs x , y and z are calculated using pairwise F ST distances, d AB , d BC and d AC , where x  = ( d AB  +  d AC  −  d BC )/2, y  = ( d AB  +  d BC  −  d AC )/2, z  = ( d AC  +  d BC  −  d AB )/2 and A, B and C are the three populations under consideration (Extended Data Fig. 2 ).

HLA allele assignment, haplotype reconstruction, statistical analyses and in silico binding prediction assays

We applied a development version of OptiType 151 on sequence data from the immune-captured libraries, mapped against a custom HLA reference panel containing 1,025 alleles with ‘common’ or ‘intermediate’ CIWD 3.0 designation ( https://github.com/FRED-2/OptiType , tag GRG). The number of possible best matches was set to infinity. In this way we obtained HLA class I and class II alleles for the genes HLA-A , HLA-B , HLA-C , HLA-DRB1 , HLA-DQA1 , HLA-DQB1 , HLA-DPA1 and HLA-DPB1 . Of the 882 raw allele calls, 72 (8.1%) with anomalous coverage patterns induced by reads cross-mapping to several loci were overruled in favour of secondary allele predictions. Haplotypes were assigned on the basis of previously reported frequencies and properties such as linkage disequilibrium 77 , 152 , 153 and kinship when possible. To compare the HLA frequencies between precontact Chichén Itzá and postcontact Tixcacaltuyub, we performed Fisher exact tests 154 and adjusted the P values for several comparisons according to the Benjamini–Hochberg correction 155 which control the false discovery rate (FDR). We use the FDR adjustment as, compared to methods such as the Bonferroni correction, the FDR approach controls for a low proportion of false positives, instead of ensuring the existence of absolutely no false positives, resulting in increased statistical power 155 . It has been argued 74 that certain types of non-overlapping association between HLA loci may be a signature of pathogen selection. The \({f}_{{\rm{adj}}}^{* }\) metric 74 , 75 , 156 was calculated for each pairwise combination of HLA loci in the dataset, using YCH and TIX haplotypes for which we had data for every HLA locus. To provide a point of comparison for the \({f}_{{\rm{adj}}}^{* }\) score of each locus pair for both YCH and TIX, we generated 5,000 random permutations of the order of the total alleles at one of the loci in each pair and recalculated \({f}_{{\rm{adj}}}^{* }\) for each set of randomized data. We generated distributions of possible \({f}_{{\rm{adj}}}^{* }\) scores for each pair of loci in the dataset that would be obtained if the alleles at those loci were associated entirely at random. We then calculated the difference between the \({f}_{{\rm{adj}}}^{* }\) value calculated from each dataset for each pair of loci and the mean of the \({f}_{{\rm{adj}}}^{* }\) scores calculated from the randomized data for that pair of loci, then divided that difference by the standard deviation of \({f}_{{\rm{adj}}}^{* }\) calculated from the randomized data. The resulting scores allowed us to rank the HLA pairs in order of how extreme an amount of non-overlap they showed relative to entirely random associations between the same alleles ( Supplementary Methods : ‘Non-overlapping associations’). To further assess the role of HLA class II alleles in resistance to S. enterica infection, we ran in silico binding predictions for the HLA-DRB1 / 3 / 4 / 5 alleles and -DQA1 / DQB1 allele pairs found in YCH individuals and peptides derived from 18 Salmonella spp. proteins that have been previously reported to be highly immunogenic in humans ( Supplementary Methods : ‘In silico binding prediction assays’) using NetMHCIIpan-4.0 (ref. 82 ) as implemented in the IEDB Analysis Resource virtual machine image 157 , 158 . Binders were classified as strong (rank less than 2%) or weak (2% ≤ rank ≤ 10%) on the basis of the adjusted rank values recommended by the authors and previously published research 82 , 159 .

Principal components analysis

Smartpca (v.16000) from the Eigensoft package 160 was used to calculate principal components (PCs) of variation in the dataset, using the options ‘lsqproject: YES’ and ‘shrinkmode: YES’. Initially, we projected the ancient individuals on PCs calculated on the genetic variation in 371 worldwide populations, to access the continental-level ancestries in the ancient individuals. We then projected the ancient individuals on PCs calculated on variation from 172 Native American populations, both modern and ancient ( Supplementary Methods ).

ADMIXTURE analysis

We used ADMIXTURE v.1.3.0 (ref. 161 ), a maximum-likelihood based clustering algorithm, to estimate the genetic structure present in our samples, after excluding variants with minor allele frequency of 0.01 and following linkage disequilibrium pruning using Plink (v.1.90) with a step size of 5, a window size of 200 and an R 2 threshold of 0.5 (ref. 161 ). For K  = 2 to K  = 13, we estimated the cross-validation error with 100 bootstrap replicates in an unsupervised model using either a panel of populations that are comprised of four ancestry clusters of African, European, Papuan and American origin based on the Simons Genome Diversity Project dataset 54 plus other relevant populations or a set of the aforementioned populations plus a set of 66 modern and ancient Native American populations to account for different sources of genetic contribution ( Supplementary Methods ). The lowest cross-validation errors corresponded to K  = 4 and K  = 8, respectively.

F -statistics and ancestry modelling tests

To assess the genetic relationships and patterns of admixtures suggested by the PCA and ADMIXTURE analysis, we carried out F -statistics analyses using the Xerxes CLI software (v.0.3.0.0) from the Poseidon (v.2.5.0) framework 162 . We calculated F 3 -statistics of the form f 3 (Outgroup; target, X ) to measure the amount of shared genetic drift of populations target and X after their divergence from an African outgroup; where X is either YCH or TIX and Outgroup corresponds to Mbuti from Congo 52 . We then used a subset of Native American populations (those with the top F 3 scores from our previous test) to perform F 4 tests of the form f 4 (Mbuti, YCH; test, TIX) to investigate if the YCH and TIX groups are more closely related to each other or shared an excess of alleles with any population in position test. A negative value implies that either YCH and test or TIX and Mbuti share more alleles than expected under the null hypothesis of a symmetrical relationship between YCH and TIX. On the other hand, a positive value suggests that YCH and TIX share an excess of alleles between themselves. To test whether the newly sequenced individuals were genetically similar enough to be grouped into one group, we used qpWave 50 v.420, a modelling approach which evaluates the likelihood of two individuals to derive from the same ancestry, relative to a given set of references including worldwide populations. A value below 0.05 indicates a low likelihood, from which we conclude that one of the individuals has a different ancestry profile. For most tests, the respective individuals are consistent with deriving from the same ancestry tested relative to the populations Mbuti.DG, Onge.DG, Papuan.DG, Han.DG, Russia_MA1_HG.SG, USA_Ancient_Beringian.SG, USA_Anzick.SG, Mixe.DG, Mexico_Zapotec.DG, Belize_MayahakCabPek_9300BP, Karitiana.DG, Piapoco.DG, Peru_LaGalgada_4100BP, Pima, Cabecar. There are few exceptions, in which an individual shows low likelihood of sharing ancestry with several other individuals. Particularly high rates of pairs with a low likelihood were produced by the individuals YCH006, YCH011, YCH037, YCH046, YCH59 and YCH064. To investigate which ancestries differentiate the respective individual from most individuals, we calculated the differential affinities using an F 4 statistics of the form f 4 (Mbuti.DG, X ; YCH Group, Y ), in which X would be the respective individual and Y present-day groups 50 and published ancient groups and individuals 49 , 163 , 164 , 165 , 166 , 167 , 168 , 169 , 170 , 171 , 172 . In this test, we would assume a positive test score, if the group or individual in Y has a higher affinity to the tested individual ( X ) compared to the group. Unexpectedly, there is no ancient or modern group or individual that could explain the behaviour in the qpWave analysis. To test whether present-day Mayan speakers (‘Mayan’ per The Simons Genome Diversity Project 54 , Kaqchikel) were consistent with deriving from the same ancestry as the ancient individuals from Chichén Itzá, we tested them relative to the reference set of tested relative to the populations Mbuti.DG, Onge.DG, Papuan.DG, Han.DG, Russia_MA1_HG.SG, USA_Ancient_Beringian.SG, USA_Anzick.SG, Mixe.DG, Mexico_Zapotec.DG, Belize_MayahakCabPek_9300BP and Karitiana.DG. In both cases, the resulting P values (Kaqchikel: 0.08, ‘Mayan’: 0.755) suggest that the ancient and present-day groups share the same ancestry. The same test was not successful for other present-day populations such as Gen-Pano-Carib or Chibchan-Paezan speakers as well as for the seemingly unadmixed individuals from Tixcacaltuyub, possibly attributable to European admixture not detected in the model-based clustering analyses (Fig. 2 and Extended Data Fig. 1 ). When modelling their ancestry composition relative to the populations Mbuti.DG, Onge.DG, Papuan.DG, Han.DG, Russia_MA1_HG.SG, USA_Ancient_Beringian.SG, USA_Anzick.SG, Mixe.DG, Mexico_Zapotec.DG, Belize_MayahakCabPek_9300BP, Karitiana.DG as a mixture of Yoruba.DG, Spanish.DG and ‘Mayan’, the working model ( P  = 0.11) suggests a composition of 92% Mayan, 7% Spanish and 0.03% Yoruban ancestry.

Reporting summary

Further information on research design is available in the  Nature Portfolio Reporting Summary linked to this article.

Data availability

All the genomic data (including nuclear DNA, mtDNA and HLA alignment sequences) for the ancient Chichén Itzá individuals (YCH) are archived in the European Nucleotide Archive database (accession no. PRJEB73567 ). Present-day genomic data of Tixcacaltuyub individuals (TIX) are archived in the European Genome-Phenome Archive database (dataset no. EGAD50000000426 ) and will be made available on request from R.B., K.N., J.C.L.R. and J.K. and subject to a signed agreement to restrict usage to anonymized studies of population history. All HLA data from our sample sets, both frequencies and individual genotypes, can be found at The Allele Frequency Net Database website ( www.allelefrequencies.net ) under accession nos. 3791 (YCH) and 3790 (TIX).

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Acknowledgements

We thank C. Tzec-Puch, K. S. P. Shanmugavel, M. Pimienta, A. Gallardo, E. Collen, F. Aron, R. Stahl, C. Freund, R. Radzeviciute, M. Burri, A. Wissgott, S. Bodling, E. Essel, S. Schiffels, G. Brandt and S. Clayton for their technical and analytical support. We are grateful to L. M. Morfín, E. G. Zapata, J. Walden, A. Tiliakou, L. Curiel, A. A. Valtueña, J. F. Yates, T. C. Lamnidis, V. Villalba, C. Posth and J. Granados for comments and discussions which are part of the final manuscript. Thanks to all the participants who kindly agreed on benefiting our research with their sample and time, Jach nib óolal ! This work was financially supported by the Max Planck Society. A.S. received funding from the German Research Foundation (grant ID We-4195/18-1 ‘ImMiGeNe’) through collaboration with A. Weber, Department of Immunology, Tübingen, Germany. A.B.R. was supported by the Max Planck Society and the European Research Council under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation Program grant no. 771234-PALEoRIDER.

Open access funding provided by Max Planck Society.

Author information

Patxi Pérez-Ramallo

Present address: Department of Archaeology and Cultural History, University Museum, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim, Norway

Ainash Childebayeva

Present address: Department of Anthropology, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA

These authors contributed equally: Rodrigo Barquera, Oana Del Castillo-Chávez, Kathrin Nägele, Patxi Pérez-Ramallo, Diana Iraíz Hernández-Zaragoza

Authors and Affiliations

Department of Archaeogenetics, Max-Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology (MPI-EVA), Leipzig, Germany

Rodrigo Barquera, Kathrin Nägele, Diana Iraíz Hernández-Zaragoza, Adam Benjamin Rohrlach, Ainash Childebayeva, Raffaela Angelina Bianco, Christina Warinner & Johannes Krause

Molecular Genetics Laboratory, Escuela Nacional de Antropología e Historia (ENAH), Mexico City, Mexico

Rodrigo Barquera, Diana Iraíz Hernández-Zaragoza & Victor Acuña-Alonzo

Centro INAH Yucatán, Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia (INAH), Mérida, Yucatán, Mexico

Oana Del Castillo-Chávez

isoTROPIC Research Group, Max Planck Institute of Geoanthropology, Jena, Germany

Patxi Pérez-Ramallo, Mary Lucas & Patrick Roberts

University of the Basque Country (EHU), San Sebastián-Donostia, Spain

Department of Archaeology, Max Planck Institute of Geoanthropology, Jena, Germany

Applied Bioinformatics, Dept. for Computer Science, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany

András Szolek & Oliver Kohlbacher

Department of Immunology, Interfaculty Institute for Cell Biology, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany

András Szolek

School of Computer and Mathematical Sciences, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia

Adam Benjamin Rohrlach

Institut de Biologia Evolutiva (CSIC—Universitat Pompeu Fabra), Barcelona, Spain

Pablo Librado

The Zeeman Institute and the School of Life Sciences, University of Warwick, Coventry, UK

Bridget S. Penman

Chemistry Faculty, Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán (UADY), Mérida, Mexico

Julio César Lara-Riegos & Julio César Torres-Romero

Nursing Faculty, Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán (UADY), Mérida, Mexico

María Ermila Moo-Mezeta

Institute for Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany

Oliver Kohlbacher

Quantitative Biology Center, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany

Translational Bioinformatics, University Hospital Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany

Department of Anthropology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA

Christina Warinner

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Contributions

R.B., O.C.C., K.N., D.I.H.Z., C.W. and J.K. conceived the project. R.B., O.C.C. and D.I.H.Z. performed the registration and photographic recording for YCH. O.C.C. performed the osteological analyses for YCH. R.B., O.C.C. and D.I.H.Z. performed the field work sampling of YCH. J.C.L.R., M.E.M.M., J.C.T.R. and C.I.T.P. performed the sampling and DNA extraction for TIX. R.B. and R.A.B. performed the aDNA laboratory work and the library preparation for TIX. R.B., O.C.C., R.A.B., P.P.R., P.R. and C.W. analysed and discussed the archaeological data, including the radiocarbon dates. P.P.R., M.L., A.B.R., P.R. and C.W. performed and discussed the stable isotopes analyses. R.B., K.N., A.B.R. and P.L. performed the genetic continuity tests. R.B., D.I.H.Z., B.S.P., A.S., A.B.R., A.C. and O.K. performed the selection and HLA analyses. B.S.P. contributed to the HLA non-overlap analysis. R.B., O.C.C., K.N., D.I.H.Z., A.B.R., R.A.B., V.A.A., C.W. and J.K. analysed the population genetics data and uniparental markers results. All authors discussed the results. R.B., O.C.C., K.N., D.I.H.Z., P.P.R., C.W. and J.K. wrote the paper with contributions from all authors. All authors read and approved the final version. R.B., O.C.C., K.N., D.I.H.Z. and V.A.A. wrote and submitted the final report (in Spanish) for the Council of Archaeology (INAH) based on the present manuscript, as well as the Spanish translation for the main manuscript.

Corresponding authors

Correspondence to Rodrigo Barquera , Oana Del Castillo-Chávez or Johannes Krause .

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Extended data figures and tables

Extended data fig. 1 f4 test of the form f 4 (mbuti, ych; test , tix)..

Values are plotted (circle) with their corresponding error bars (in purple). For all tested populations, the value of the test is positive, indicating that YCH And TIX shared more alleles between them than to any of the Native American populations tested.

Extended Data Fig. 2 A graphical representation for the locus-specific branch lengths comparisons.

The variables x , y and z , (representing either YCH vs. Iberians from Spain and Han from China, or TIX vs. Iberians and YCH, to independently test for selection) are calculated using pairwise F ST distances, d AB , d BC and d AC , where x  = (d AB + d AC – d BC )/2, y  = (d AB +d BC – d AC )/2, z  = (d AC + d BC – d AB )/2 and A, B and C are the three populations under consideration.

Supplementary information

Supplementary information.

Supplementary text, methods, Tables 1–20 and Figs. 1–8.

Reporting Summary

Supplementary note 1.

The non-peer-reviewed translation of the main article into Spanish.

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Barquera, R., Del Castillo-Chávez, O., Nägele, K. et al. Ancient genomes reveal insights into ritual life at Chichén Itzá. Nature (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-07509-7

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-07509-7

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