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• Fact Sheets

Fact Sheet: Guidance for Travelers to Enter the U.S. at Land Ports of Entry and Ferry Terminals

Updated Date: May 1, 2023

DHS Statement on the Lifting of Title 19 Requirements

Beginning May 12, 2023, DHS will no longer require non-U.S. travelers entering the United States via land ports of entry and ferry terminals to be fully vaccinated against COVID-19 and provide related proof of vaccination upon request. DHS intends to rescind these Title 19 travel restrictions in alignment with the end of the Public Health Emergency and the termination of the Presidential Proclamation on air travel .

Updated Date: April 21, 2022

As of Thursday, April 21, 2022, DHS will extend COVID-19-related land border entry requirements. Non-U.S. travelers seeking to enter the United States via land ports of entry and ferry terminals at the U.S.-Mexico and U.S.-Canada borders are required to be fully vaccinated against COVID-19 and provide proof of vaccination upon request.  

These restrictions apply to non-U.S. travelers who are traveling for essential or non-essential reasons. They do not apply to U.S. citizens, Lawful Permanent Residents, or U.S. nationals. 

This announcement does not affect requirements for entry into the United States by air.

What To Expect

As travel returns to pre-pandemic levels, wait times are expected to increase. The resources below are intended to prepare travelers to improve the cross-border travel experience. Travelers should plan for longer than normal wait times and longer lines at U.S. land border crossings when planning their trip and are reminded to exercise patience.

To help reduce wait times and long lines, travelers arriving or departing from air, sea or land ports of entry are encouraged to opt in to using Simplified Arrival or Mobile Passport Control , which can make the inspection process touchless and more expedient with the use of facial comparison technology . Documented non-citizens may also apply for and manage their I-94s through the CBP One TM mobile application, which serves as a single portal for individuals to access CBP mobile applications and services.

Arrival at Land Port of Entry or Ferry Terminal

Since January 22, 2022, DHS has allowed inbound non-U.S. travelers (non-U.S. citizens who are neither U.S. nationals nor lawful permanent residents) to seek to enter the United States via a land port of entry (POE) or ferry terminal if they are fully vaccinated and have appropriate documentation.

Non-U.S. individuals traveling to the United States via land ports of entry or ferry terminals, whether for essential or non-essential reasons, must: 

• verbally attest to their COVID-19 vaccination status;
• provide, upon request, proof of a CDC-approved COVID-19 vaccination, as outlined on the CDC website ;  
• present a valid  Western Hemisphere Travel Initiative  (WHTI)-compliant document, such as a valid passport, Trusted Traveler Program Card, or Enhanced Tribal Card;   
• be prepared to present any other relevant documents requested by a U.S. Customs and Border Protection (CBP) officer during a border inspection; and   

COVID-19 testing is not required for entry via a land or ferry port of entry. 

Click here to see answers to frequently asked questions

In March 2020, to prevent the further spread of COVID-19, the U.S. government issued restrictions on travel into the United States. DHS implemented temporary restrictions, limiting entry at the U.S. northern and southern land borders to persons engaged in essential travel, including lawful trade, emergency response, and public health purposes. The White House also suspended entry to foreign nationals who had recently been in certain countries.

In October 2021, the White House  announced  that, starting November 8, 2021, the U.S. government would move away from the country-by-country restrictions previously applied during the COVID-19 pandemic and adopt travel policies that rely primarily on vaccination to advance the safe resumption of travel. Since January 22, 2022, DHS has imposed a vaccination requirement on non-U.S. individuals seeking to cross into the United States at land ports of entry or ferry terminals. 

CDC Resources

• International Travel Landing Page
• Travel Requirements: Quiz
• International Travel : Information for U.S. Citizens, U.S. Nationals, Lawful Permanent Residents, and People Traveling to the U.S. on Immigrant Visas
• Non-U.S. Citizen Non-U.S. Immigrants: Air Travel to the United States

Additional Information

• Vaccines.gov
• DHS Response to Coronavirus Disease 2019
• Coronavirus.gov
• CDC.gov: Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19)
• USA.gov: What the U.S. Government is Doing (link is no longer valid)
• Border Security
• Transportation Security
• Coronavirus (COVID-19)
• Customs and Border Protection (CBP)

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Canada-U.S. border restrictions: The current rules with ArriveCan, COVID-19 tests, vaccine mandates

With the COVID-19 restrictions at the border to remain in place for at least another month , some Canadians may need a primer on what those rules are.

Public Health Agency of Canada announced that several pandemic restrictions will be extended at Canadian airports and land borders, including vaccine mandates, random COVID-19 tests and the mandatory use of the ArriveCan app, until at least June 30.

While few Canadians may still be anxious about travelling, some are ready to take a vacation after more than two years in a pandemic. CTVNews.ca breaks down what rules travellers need to be aware of as they plan their trips prior to jetting off.

• Newsletter sign-up: Get The COVID-19 Brief sent to your inbox

PRE-ENTRY TEST NO LONGER REQUIRED

As of April 1, fully vaccinated travellers no longer need to provide a negative pre-entry COVID-19 test result to enter Canada by air, land or water.

Passengers may still be subjected to mandatory, random PCR testing at the airport -- in part to monitor for new, emerging COVID-19 variants -- though they will not be required to isolate while awaiting their results.

As of April 25, children aged five to 11 who are travelling with a fully vaccinated parent or guardian will no longer be required to complete a COVID-19 test prior to entering Canada, regardless of whether the child is unvaccinated. Children under the age of five won’t be required to complete a pre-entry COVID-19 test either, and are exempt for vaccination requirements.

ARRIVECAN APP

All travellers coming to Canada, regardless of citizenship or vaccination status, still have to use the ArriveCAN app to submit their health information before arriving in Canada. Travellers must submit their information in ArriveCAN within 72 hours before arrival at a port of entry.

Travellers who arrive without completing their ArriveCAN submission may have to test on arrival and on the eighth day of their 14-day quarantine, regardless of their vaccination status. Foreign nationals may be denied entry as well if they have not completed their ArriveCAN submission.

Any travellers who fail to submit their information and proof of vaccination using ArriveCAN could be fined $5,000.

While travellers still have to use the ArriveCAN app, the federal government has dropped its requirement for those entering the country to monitor for and report any COVID-19 symptoms they experience. Those travelling from abroad also won’t be required to keep a list of close contacts and places visited for the first 14 days after their arrival in Canada.

PROOF OF VACCINATION STILL NEEDED

Despite the lifting of pre-entry test requirements, the requirement to be fully vaccinated with a government-approved COVID-19 vaccine in order to board federally-regulated air, rail, and marine transportation remains in effect.

Pre-entry testing requirements have not changed for partially vaccinated or unvaccinated travellers who are currently allowed to travel to Canada.

Unless otherwise exempt, all travellers age 12 or older who do not qualify as fully vaccinated – having received at least two doses of a COVID-19 vaccine accepted for travel or a mix of two vaccines – must continue to provide proof of a negative pre-entry COVID-19 test result.

Accepted pre-entry tests include a health professional-administered negative rapid antigen test taken no more than one day before arriving at a port of entry, or a negative molecular test taken no more than 72 hours before a scheduled flight or crossing at a land border.

Partially vaccinated or unvaccinated travellers may also provide a positive molecular test taken at least 10 days and no more than 180 days before their scheduled flight departure time or their arrival at the land border to enter Canada. Positive antigen test results are not accepted.

The government recommends completing a COVID-19 vaccine series, along with any additional recommended doses in Canada, at least 14 days before travelling internationally. For those who must travel, the government suggests delaying one's plans until they are fully vaccinated.

MASKING DURING TRAVEL AND AFTER ARRIVAL

Canadian adults and children aged five and older who are fully vaccinated are no longer expected to wear a mask in public spaces for 14 days following their arrival in Canada. However, children aged five to 11 who are either unvaccinated or partially vaccinated must continue to wear masks in public settings, such as school, for 14 days after entering Canada.

All travellers are also still required to wear a mask while travelling on federally-regulated modes of transportation, such as a plane or train, regardless of whether they are vaccinated.

BEFORE YOU GO

Prior to travelling, the government recommends checking the COVID-19 testing and vaccination requirements, as well as other entry requirements, at one's destination as they may be different from Canada's rules.

Travellers are also advised by the Canadian government to monitor the COVID-19 situation at their destination in the days before travelling should the status of COVID-19 infections and public health requirements there change.

CRUISE SHIPS

Cruise passengers aged five years or older are required to take an antigen or molecular COVID-19 test in order to board a ship no more than two days before their scheduled departure, but will not need to be tested before getting off the ship.

All other requirements for cruises, including providing proof of vaccination before boarding, remain in place.

The government continues to warn travellers that the virus can spread easily between people in close quarters, such as on cruise ships. The government says the chance of being infected with COVID-19 on cruise ships is still "very high," even for those who are fully vaccinated.

A previous version of this article misstated the timeline for passengers to submit an antigen or a molecular COVID-19 test before boarding a cruise ship.

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• What's My Car Worth?
• Buyer's Guide

Canada Opens Border to U.S. Travelers Once Again, and Cars Are Lining Up

If you're going, there are still COVID-19 vaccination and testing rules, and a stiff fine for those who submit false information.

• Since March 2020, Americans have not been able to travel to Canada for tourism or other nonessential reasons. That changed this week, but getting across the border is still a bit tricky.
• More than 112 million vehicles crossed from Canada to the U.S. in 2019, but the number dropped to 68.5 million in 2020. The drop was mostly due to lower numbers of personal vehicles and buses, as the number of trucks crossing remained relatively steady.

CORRECTION 8/14/21, 10:00 a.m.: We added a digit that was missing in the amount of a government fine Canada threatens to charge people who falsify documents about their COVID-19 status. That number truly is $600,000 U.S.

The U.S.-Canada border could see its traditional long lines again soon. The Canadian government lifted its ban on Americans making nonessential border crossings this week, but news reports from around the country, from Washington State to Vermont, suggest that massive amounts of Americans are in no great rush to head north. On-the-ground reporting from The New York Times suggests the long lines seen at some border crossings are due to people not using the necessary app correctly, or simply not having the required documents, and not caused by a massive number of people trying to cross.

The border-crossing prohibition has been in place since March 21, 2020. The U.S. government is keeping similar restrictions on Canadians coming to the U.S. until at least August 21. Canada said it will tentatively open its borders to other foreign nationals who are fully vaccinated on September 7. Anyone with COVID symptoms will, unsurprisingly, not be able to enter. Just because the border is open again doesn't mean you can drive across the way you could before COVID-19 was a thing. Before U.S. citizens and legal residents can enter Canada, they have to be fully vaccinated and show a negative COVID-19 test that was taken within the past three days. Children under 12 years old, who are not yet eligible for the vaccine, can travel with a fully vaccinated parent or guardian. The vaccination and test result documents need to be uploaded alongside a filled-out digital visitor application in the arriveCAN smartphone app or website to assist Canadian officials with determining if an individual is able to enter Canada. Submitting false information could result in a fine of up to $750,000 (Canadian), the equivalent of about $600,000 U.S., or a six-month prison term.

Statistics from the U.S. Department of Transportation show that there were over 112 million vehicle crossings into the U.S. from Canada in 2019, compared to 68.5 million in 2020. Most of that drop came from fewer bus and personal vehicle crossings, which were both down around 50 percent. Cross-border truck traffic barely dropped during the first year of the pandemic, going from just over 12 million crossings in 2019 to 11.5 million in 2020. The border was never closed to essential truck cargo traffic. While not everyone is eager to cross the border, overall traffic numbers are climbing. The Federal Highway Administration announced this week that motorists in the U.S. drove 282.5 billion miles in June 2021. That's 35.7 billion more miles than they drove in June 2020 and almost as many as the 284.5 billion miles driven in June 2019.

Sebastian Blanco has been writing about electric vehicles, hybrids, and hydrogen cars since 2006. His articles and car reviews have appeared in the New York Times, Automotive News , Reuters, SAE, Autoblog, InsideEVs, Trucks.com, Car Talk, and other outlets. His first green-car media event was the launch of the Tesla Roadster, and since then he has been tracking the shift away from gasoline-powered vehicles and discovering the new technology's importance not just for the auto industry, but for the world as a whole. Throw in the recent shift to autonomous vehicles, and there are more interesting changes happening now than most people can wrap their heads around. You can find him on Twitter or, on good days, behind the wheel of a new EV. 

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Canada-U.S. border rules and restrictions during the COVID-19 pandemic explained

The rules are complicated and sometimes change. here's what you need to know now.

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Confused over Canada-U.S. border restrictions during the COVID-19 pandemic? 

Perhaps you're wondering why you see U.S. licence plates in a local parking lot when the Canada-U.S. land border is closed to tourists. 

Or you're stumped why your neighbour was able to fly to New York last week, but you can't make the five-minute drive across the Windsor-Detroit border to visit family. 

Here's what you need to know about current Canada-U.S. border restrictions and how they may impact you.

Canada-U.S. land border rules

To help stop the spread of the novel coronavirus, Canada and the U.S. agreed to close their shared land border to non-essential traffic starting on March 21. The agreement is reviewed every 30 days. So far, the border closure has been extended three times. 

The current end date is July 21 , and that date could be extended once again, particularly if the number of COVID-19 cases in some U.S.  states  continues to spike. 

"I honestly don't think the border will open until the end of the year," said U.S. immigration lawyer Len Saunders. "Especially when you hear about more [COVID-19] cases in Arizona and Texas and all these southern states."

• B.C. closing Peace Arch park at Canada-U.S. border due to 'significant' number of visitors

The Canada-U.S. land border remains open to people making trips for essential reasons, such as for work or school.

On June 9, the Canadian government loosened its border restrictions to allow American visitors with immediate family in Canada to enter the country. Note that a boyfriend or girlfriend doesn't qualify as family and a common-law partner only qualifies if that person has lived with their significant other for at least a year. 

Visiting family members must stay in Canada for at least 15 days and self-quarantine for 14 days upon arrival.

The land border closure continues to frustrate many cross-border couples who can't meet Canada's requirements for reuniting with family. 

Last year, Ian Geddes of Blaine, Wash., married Birgit Heinbach  of Surrey, B.C. Until Heinbach gets her U.S. immigrant visa, the two are separated by the border. 

Geddes said he can't get enough time off work right now to complete a 14-day quarantine in Canada — before he can hang out with his wife and her son.

• Engaged Canadian-American couples kept apart despite new exemption for cross-border families

"It's just a really tough situation," said Geddes, who wishes the Canadian government would waive the self-quarantine requirement for immediate family.

"You should be allowed to cross into a country and see your wife," he said. "Give us some kind of a concession."

You can fly to the U.S. 

Some Canadians may be surprised to learn they can still fly to the U.S. during the pandemic, even though the same rule doesn't apply on the other side of the border. 

With the exception of immediate family, Canada currently restricts all foreigners — including Americans — from visiting the country for non-essential travel via any mode of transportation. 

The U.S., however, only prohibits visitors from entering its country if they've been in Brazil, China, Iran, Ireland, the U.K. or 26 European countries in the Schengen Area 14 days prior. 

Because of the bilateral agreement to close the Canada-U.S. land border, the only way Canadians can currently travel to the U.S. is by air . Saunders said dozens of his Canadian clients have flown to the U.S. with no complications during the land border closure. 

"There's a back door wide open," said Saunders, whose office sits close to the Canadian border in Blaine, Wash. "They can just go in through the airport, and so that's what people are doing in droves."

• Canadians can still travel to the U.S. during the COVID-19 pandemic — just not by car

Canadian air passengers also likely won't have to self-isolate for 14 days upon arrival in the U.S. The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention recommends that international travellers do so, but it's not a requirement unless specified by a particular region or state.

When Canadians return home, they must self-isolate for 14 days —  as per federal rules . 

WATCH | What adjusted border rules mean for families eager to reunite:   

U.S.- Canada border restrictions loosened, allowing some families to reunite

Heinbach plans to fly to the U.S. in August to visit Geddes in Blaine. It's a frustrating solution for the couple because, even though they live in different countries, their homes are only eight kilometres apart — typically a 10-minute drive, depending on border traffic.  

But now Heinbach must fly from Vancouver to Seattle to visit Geddes in Blaine — a journey of more than three hours by plane and car. 

"It just doesn't make sense," said Geddes. 

U.S. licence plates in Canada 

Some Banff, Alta., residents have complained that they've recently spotted American tourists and U.S. licence plates in the resort town. 

"Two days ago, I saw four people get out of a car, out of a Texas vehicle," Banff resident Nina Stewart told CBC News on June 12. "They were laughing and joking about how easy it was to get into Banff."

• Air Canada apologizes after barring passenger from flying to U.S. to see terminally ill husband

Canada allows Americans to drive through the country to Alaska for essential reasons, such as for work or returning to their home. However, they're not to make unnecessary stops along the way. 

RCMP said officers fined seven Americans this week who were supposed to be driving straight to Alaska, but instead were caught taking in the sights at Banff National Park. The fines, issued under the Alberta Health Act, were for $1,200 each. 

"As much as you'd want to stop and see the sights ... that's just inappropriate," said Fraser Logan, spokesperson for the RCMP in Alberta. 

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Business reporter

Based in Toronto, Sophia Harris covers consumer and business for CBC News web, radio and TV. She previously worked as a CBC videojournalist in the Maritimes where she won an Atlantic Journalism Award for her work. Contact: [email protected]

• @sophiaharrisCBC

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COVID-19 international travel advisories

If you plan to visit the U.S., you do not need to be tested or vaccinated for COVID-19. U.S. citizens going abroad, check with the Department of State for travel advisories.

COVID-19 testing and vaccine rules for entering the U.S.

• As of May 12, 2023, noncitizen nonimmigrant visitors to the U.S.  arriving by air  or  arriving by land or sea  no longer need to show proof of being fully vaccinated against COVID-19. 
• As of June 12, 2022,  people entering the U.S. no longer need to show proof of a negative COVID-19 test . 

U.S. citizens traveling to a country outside the U.S.

Find country-specific COVID-19 travel rules from the Department of State.

See the  CDC's COVID-19 guidance for safer international travel.

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Who can travel from the U.S. to Canada?

How many border crossings are there between the u.s. and canada, checklist for a u.s.-canada border crossing, special cases for alaska residents, if you want to cross the u.s.-canada border ….

Borders between the U.S. and Canada recently reopened to travelers more than a year after having closed due to COVID-19. Now, many who are eager to explore our neighbor to the north are left wondering what’s involved in a border crossing and what guidelines they’ll need to adhere to for a successful journey.

If you’re anxious to visit Montreal, Toronto, Vancouver or Calgary, here’s what to know to plan your U.S.-Canada border crossing, whether by land, air or sea.

Currently, Canadian borders are open to all U.S. citizens wishing to enter regardless of vaccination status. However, the requirements for entry will vary based on your vaccination status.

Fully vaccinated travelers no longer need to provide a negative COVID test for entry, but must still use the ArriveCAN app to submit mandatory entry information, including proof of vaccination, at least 72 hours prior to arrival and/or before boarding a cruise ship destined for Canada.

Not fully vaccinated? You won’t be able to visit Canada if you’re traveling for discretionary or leisure purposes. If you don't qualify as a fully vaccinated traveler but still need to travel to Canada for reasons other than leisure, you’ll be required to quarantine for 14 days, take a molecular COVID test, and register for a COVID test upon your arrival in the country, which you can do in advance to save time.

» Learn more: What COVID test is required for travel?

There are more than 100 land border crossings between the U.S. and Canada, and wait time to cross can vary widely.

At most crossings, how long you wait depends on the time of day and the day of the week. Some crossings have little to no delay at off-peak travel times, and others, like Buffalo, New York, can log wait times around 40 minutes.

If you want to set appropriate expectations for how long it takes to cross the U.S.-Canada border, check the Government of Canada website , which is updated hourly.

» Learn more: Need a passport for a trip? Give yourself a big time cushion

If you're fully vaccinated and traveling to Canada, whether by car, plane or boat, you still have to follow certain protocols. To meet entry requirements, you must:

Have no symptoms of COVID-19.

Have received all doses of a COVID-19 vaccine at least 14 full days before you enter Canada.

Upload your proof of vaccination in ArriveCAN , an app that provides border crossing info and stores important documentation.

Have your required entry documents.

NOTE: As of April 1, 2022, fully vaccinated travelers no longer need to provide a negative test for entry.

» Learn more: 4 differences between a passport book and card

If you don’t meet all the requirements of a fully vaccinated traveler, you’ll have to quarantine for 14 days upon arrival. You may also be selected for a random arrival test at some airports and land crossings. These may take place at the airport or a designated testing site, or you may be provided with a do-it-yourself kit that you can send in once you arrive at your final destination.

If you live in Alaska, you may sometimes have to drive through Canada to get to certain regions of the state. Unvaccinated Alaska residents who must pass through Canada for necessary purposes (i.e. not for leisure or recreation) may do so without pre-entry and arrival COVID tests, but they must remain in their vehicle while driving through Canada. They'll also likely be given a specimen collection kit when they cross a land border into Canada.

If you're leaving Alaska to travel to the lower forty-eight, or if you're returning to Alaska after being in another state, you may also be granted special permission to pass through Canada. However, if you’re not fully vaccinated you will need a negative COVID molecular test result to enter. You'll also need proof that you live in Alaska if you’re driving north, or proof of residence or employment in the lower forty-eight if driving south.

The key to a successful U.S.-Canadian border crossing is preparation. Make sure you know what documentation and information you need well in advance of your arrival at the border or the airport. Ensure everything is in order and uploaded to the ArriveCAN app, and be patient. Above all, travel safely.

How to maximize your rewards

You want a travel credit card that prioritizes what’s important to you. Here are our picks for the best travel credit cards of 2024 , including those best for:

Flexibility, point transfers and a large bonus: Chase Sapphire Preferred® Card

No annual fee: Bank of America® Travel Rewards credit card

Flat-rate travel rewards: Capital One Venture Rewards Credit Card

Bonus travel rewards and high-end perks: Chase Sapphire Reserve®

Luxury perks: The Platinum Card® from American Express

Business travelers: Ink Business Preferred® Credit Card

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1x-5x 5x on travel purchased through Chase Travel℠, 3x on dining, select streaming services and online groceries, 2x on all other travel purchases, 1x on all other purchases.

60,000 Earn 60,000 bonus points after you spend $4,000 on purchases in the first 3 months from account opening. That's $750 when you redeem through Chase Travel℠.

1.5%-6.5% Enjoy 6.5% cash back on travel purchased through Chase Travel; 4.5% cash back on drugstore purchases and dining at restaurants, including takeout and eligible delivery service, and 3% on all other purchases (on up to $20,000 spent in the first year). After your first year or $20,000 spent, enjoy 5% cash back on travel purchased through Chase Travel, 3% cash back on drugstore purchases and dining at restaurants, including takeout and eligible delivery service, and unlimited 1.5% cash back on all other purchases.

$300 Earn an additional 1.5% cash back on everything you buy (on up to $20,000 spent in the first year) - worth up to $300 cash back!

on Capital One's website

2x-5x Earn unlimited 2X miles on every purchase, every day. Earn 5X miles on hotels and rental cars booked through Capital One Travel, where you'll get Capital One's best prices on thousands of trip options.

75,000 Enjoy a one-time bonus of 75,000 miles once you spend $4,000 on purchases within 3 months from account opening, equal to $750 in travel.

Travelling to the United States

Planning a trip to the United States? Here are the answers to some common questions from travellers aiming for a smooth border crossing.

Do I need to be vaccinated to enter the United States?

No. As of May 12, 2023, you no longer need to be vaccinated against COVID-19 to enter the United States, regardless of whether you arrive by car, train, boat or plane.

What are the requirements for entering the United States by air?

To enter the United States by air, you must present a valid Canadian passport or NEXUS card (even for a simple connection). Children also must have one of these two documents.

As a traveller, you are responsible for ensuring that you meet the requirements, which are outlined on travel.gc.ca .

Sherpa, the tool you need.

Important information about your trip: health restrictions, entry requirements, and more

What are the requirements for entering the United States by car or boat?

Any Canadian citizen aged 16 or older must present either of the following documents when entering the United States by land (or sea):

• a  valid passport ;
• a  membership card for an expedited border crossing program like NEXUS;
• an  Enhanced Identification Card proving Canadian citizenship; or
• a Secure Certificate of Indian Status.

Canadian citizens aged 15 or under who are accompanied and those aged 16 or 17 who are travelling to the U.S. by land or sea with a school or other organized group (under the supervision of an adult and with consent from a parent or guardian) may present the original or a copy of their birth certificate, or a Canadian citizenship card or certificate.

The NEXUS card helps frequent travellers get across the border faster. Travellers must apply to get one. A NEXUS card can be used instead of a passport to enter or leave the U.S. by land or sea. It can also be used at self-service checkpoints when returning to Canada by air.

See border wait times

Plan your trips to avoid waiting in line for hours. The tables are updated on the hour, 24/7:

Canadian customs

U.S. customs

What are the requirements for returning to Canada?

COVID-19–related requirements to return to Canada (vaccination status, random testing, isolation/quarantine) were lifted by the Canadian government. The ArriveCAN app is still available, but its use is now optional. Travellers can also use it to fill out their customs declarations.

However, the government reserves the right to reinstate certain border measures should the situation become a concern again. For more information or to find out what you need to know before crossing the border, visit the Canadian government website .

What travel insurance is recommended for the United States?

If you’re planning a trip to the U.S., even for just a day, you should purchase emergency medical travel insurance before leaving. But for even better protection against the unexpected, it’s wise to add trip cancellation and interruption insurance.

Thinking of visiting the U.S. more than once this year or travelling abroad elsewhere? Consider getting annual travel insurance . It will cover you for all your trips, all year long—making your life easier.

What about snowbirds heading to the United States?

All Canadian travellers—including snowbirds—must comply with the entry requirements for their means of travel. To help you prepare for your trip, see our comprehensive report on snowbirds .

What can I bring home to Canada after a stay in the U.S. (personal exemptions)?

Food, alcoholic beverages, and gifts are some of the things you can bring home from a trip to the United States or elsewhere. It’s important to understand these personal exemptions so you can avoid paying duties and taxes or having prohibited items confiscated.

Similarly, you should know what foods you can and cannot bring into the United States by land. Regulations on the entry of animals and animal products into the U.S. change frequently based on disease outbreaks in various parts of the world.

Important travel information

Check out our helpful information and travelling tips related to Covid-19 , including health measures for before, during, and after a trip, cancellation policies, travel insurance, and more.

Have a criminal record? You probably won’t be allowed to enter the United States (or even stop over), even if you have received a pardon in Canada. To obtain a waiver (fees apply) or for further information, contact the U.S. Consulate General . Note that a waiver is not required if you have a record of impaired driving with no aggravating factors (no injuries or deaths).

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Latest border and travel measures

This news release may not reflect the current border and travel measures. Check COVID-19: Travel, testing and borders for the latest requirements to enter Canada.

Important notice

Note that information and resources on the coronavirus (COVID-19) are available on Canada.ca. https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/diseases/coronavirus-disease-covid-19.html

Government of Canada's first phase to easing border measures for travellers entering Canada

From: Public Health Agency of Canada

News release

Today, the Government of Canada is announcing the details of the first phase of its approach to easing border measures for travellers entering Canada. These cautious adjustments are now possible because of the successes of the vaccine roll out in Canada and Canadians following public health measures.

June 21, 2021  |   Ottawa  |  Public Health Agency of Canada

The Government of Canada is taking a responsible, precautionary approach at the border by continually monitoring available data and scientific evidence to protect the health and safety of Canadians.

Beginning July 5, 2021 at 11:59 p.m. EDT, fully vaccinated travellers who are permitted to enter Canada will not be subject to the federal requirement to quarantine or take a COVID-19 test on day-8. In addition, fully vaccinated travellers arriving by air will not be required to stay at a government-authorized hotel.

To be considered fully vaccinated, a traveller must have received the full series of a vaccine — or combination of vaccines — accepted by the Government of Canada at least 14 days prior to entering Canada. Currently, those vaccines are manufactured by Pfizer, Moderna, AstraZeneca/COVISHIELD, and Janssen (Johnson & Johnson). Travellers can receive their vaccine in any country, and must provide documentation supporting their vaccination in English, French or with a certified translation.

For these new measures to apply to them, fully vaccinated travellers must still meet all other mandatory requirements, including pre- and on-arrival testing. Continued testing will allow public health experts to keep monitoring positivity rates at the border, monitor for variants of concern, and make further adjustments to border measures as needed.

Fully vaccinated travellers must also be asymptomatic, have a paper or digital copy of their vaccination documentation, and provide COVID-19-related information electronically through ArriveCAN prior to arrival in Canada. They must still present a suitable quarantine plan, and be prepared to quarantine, in case it is determined at the border that they do not meet all of the conditions required to be exempt from quarantine. As with all other exempt travellers, they will be required to follow public health measures in place, such as wearing a mask when in public, keep a copy of their vaccine and test results, as well as a list of close contacts for 14 days after entry to Canada.

For travellers who are not fully vaccinated, there are no changes to Canada’s current border measures. They must continue to adhere to the current testing and federal quarantine requirements, which have been effective in reducing importation and transmission of COVID-19 and variants in Canada, and provide COVID-19-related information electronically through ArriveCAN before arriving in Canada. Unvaccinated air travellers must also book a three-night stay at a government-authorized hotel before their departure to Canada.

The Government of Canada’s response to the COVID-19 pandemic will continue to prioritize the health and safety of Canadians. As vaccination, case counts and hospitalization rates evolve, the Government of Canada will continue to consider further targeted measures at the borders—and when to lift or adjust them—to keep Canadians safe and the economy running. 

“The cautious adjustments announced today are only possible because of the tremendous efforts of Canadians, and additional ones will only happen if we continue to protect each other. Thank you to all those who have stepped up to get their first and second dose. If you haven’t, get vaccinated when it’s your turn, follow up for your second dose, and continue to follow public health measures.” The Honourable Patty Hajdu Minister of Health

“This is the first phase of our precautionary approach to easing Canada’s border measures. At this time we are not opening up our borders any further. The Government of Canada continues to work globally through the World Health Organization as well as closely with the provinces, territories, Indigenous partners and American authorities on moving forward toward reopening in a way that is safe for both countries.” The Honourable Dominic LeBlanc President of the Queen’s Privy Council for Canada and Minister of Intergovernmental Affairs

“At this time, the Government of Canada continues to strongly advise Canadians to avoid non-essential travel. Although the future is looking brighter than it has for a long time with COVID-19 cases on a downward trend and vaccination efforts going well across the country, we can’t let our guard down. Our phased approach to easing border measures is guided by facts, scientific evidence, and the advice of our public health experts. In all that we’re doing in response to this pandemic, our top priority continues to be the health, safety and security of all Canadians.” The Honourable Bill Blair Minister of Public Safety and Emergency Preparedness

"Our government continues to closely monitor traveller positivity rates upon entry to Canada, to help protect Canadians. Today, we announced that we will be eliminating pre-departure temperature screening for international travellers coming to Canada. Also, given the number of COVID-19 cases continue to be very high in India, we have extended our flight restrictions for this country. We will continue to assess the evolving situation and determine appropriate action going forward.” The Honourable Omar Alghabra Minister of Transport Canada

“The safety and security of Canadians remains our top priority as we look to support the careful and safe arrival of new permanent residents to Canada over the next year. These new permanent residents will finally be able to start their new life in Canada and Canada will benefit from their skills when we pivot to post-pandemic economic recovery. At the same time, we’ll continue to offer protection to those who need it most, and keep our place as a global leader in providing a safe haven for refugees.” The Honourable Marco Mendicino Minister of Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada

Quick facts

For all travellers coming to Canada, planning in advance to ensure all mandatory requirements are met is crucial. In addition, some provinces and territories may have their own entry restrictions in place. Check and follow both the federal and any provincial or territorial restrictions and requirements before travelling.

Fully vaccinated travellers who wish to be considered for the eased quarantine and testing requirements must meet all criteria, including the electronic submission of their vaccination documentation, in English or French, into ArriveCAN prior to arrival at the port of entry.

A person who submits false information on vaccination status could be liable to a fine of up to $750,000 or six months imprisonment or both, under the Quarantine Act , or prosecution under the Criminal Code for forgery. Violating any quarantine or isolation instructions provided to travellers by a screening officer or quarantine officer when entering Canada is also an offence under the Quarantine Act and could lead to a $5,000 fine for each day of non-compliance or for each offence committed, or more serious penalties, including six months in prison and/or $750,000 in fines. Non-compliant air travellers may also be subject to fines of up to $5,000 for each offence committed under the Aeronautics Act.

The Government of Canada is extending, until July 21, 2021,11:59 p.m. EDT, the temporary travel restrictions on discretionary (non-essential) international travel and with the US.  Travellers who are currently  eligible to enter Canada include Canadian citizens, permanent residents and persons registered under the Indian Act , as well as some foreign nationals who are allowed to enter Canada under the current entry prohibitions ( Prohibition of Entry into Canada from the United States; Prohibition of Entry into Canada from any Country other than the United States ).

The Notice to Airmen (NOTAM) restricting all direct commercial and private passenger flights to Canada from India will be extended until July 21, 2021, as well as the Interim Order Respecting Certain Requirements for Civil Aviation Due to COVID-19 requiring air passengers who depart India to Canada via an indirect route to obtain a COVID-19 pre-departure test from a third country before continuing their journey to Canada. The NOTAM and Interim Order will not be extended for Pakistan at this time. 

The existing international flight restrictions that funnel scheduled international commercial passenger flights into four Canadian airports (Montréal-Trudeau International Airport, Toronto Pearson International Airport, Calgary International Airport and Vancouver International Airport) will be maintained in this first phase of re-opening.

Currently, foreign nationals who hold a valid Confirmation of Permanent Residence approved on or before March 18, 2020 are allowed to enter Canada. As of June 21, 2021, any foreign national who holds a valid Confirmation of Permanent Residence will be allowed to travel to Canada. Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada will work with applicants who have a Confirmation of Permanent Residence that is expiring or has expired.

Related products

• Backgrounder: Phase I of easing border measures for travellers entering Canada
• Backgrounder: Individuals approved for permanent residence may travel to Canada as of June 21
• Infographic - Fully vaccinated travellers entering Canada during COVID-19

Associated links

• COVID-19: Travel, testing, quarantine and borders
• COVID-19: Summary data about travellers, testing and compliance
• COVID-19 measures, updates, and guidance for aviation

Thierry Bélair Office of the Honourable Patty Hajdu Minister of Health 613-957-0200

Media Relations Public Health Agency of Canada 613-957-2983 [email protected]

Public Inquiries: 1-833-784-4397

Page details

• Open access
• Published: 19 April 2024

A methodology for estimating SARS-CoV-2 importation risk by air travel into Canada between July and November 2021

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• David London 4 ,
• Simon de Montigny 5 &
• Erin E. Rees 1 , 3 , 6  

BMC Public Health volume  24 , Article number:  1088 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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Estimating rates of disease importation by travellers is a key activity to assess both the risk to a country from an infectious disease emerging elsewhere in the world and the effectiveness of border measures. We describe a model used to estimate the number of travellers infected with SARS-CoV-2 into Canadian airports in 2021, and assess the impact of pre-departure testing requirements on importation risk.

A mathematical model estimated the number of essential and non-essential air travellers infected with SARS-CoV-2, with the latter requiring a negative pre-departure test result. The number of travellers arriving infected (i.e. imported cases) depended on air travel volumes, SARS-CoV-2 exposure risk in the departure country, prior infection or vaccine acquired immunity, and, for non-essential travellers, screening from pre-departure molecular testing. Importation risk was estimated weekly from July to November 2021 as the number of imported cases and percent positivity (PP; i.e. imported cases normalised by travel volume). The impact of pre-departure testing was assessed by comparing three scenarios: baseline (pre-departure testing of all non-essential travellers; most probable importation risk given the pre-departure testing requirements), counterfactual scenario 1 (no pre-departure testing of fully vaccinated non-essential travellers), and counterfactual scenario 2 (no pre-departure testing of non-essential travellers).

In the baseline scenario, weekly imported cases and PP varied over time, ranging from 145 to 539 cases and 0.15 to 0.28%, respectively. Most cases arrived from the USA, Mexico, the United Kingdom, and France. While modelling suggested that essential travellers had a higher weekly PP (0.37 – 0.65%) than non-essential travellers (0.12 – 0.24%), they contributed fewer weekly cases (62 – 154) than non-essential travellers (84 – 398 per week) given their lower travel volume. Pre-departure testing was estimated to reduce imported cases by one third (counterfactual scenario 1) to one half (counterfactual scenario 2).

Conclusions

The model results highlighted the weekly variation in importation by traveller group (e.g., reason for travel and country of departure) and enabled a framework for measuring the impact of pre-departure testing requirements. Quantifying the contributors of importation risk through mathematical simulation can support the design of appropriate public health policy on border measures.

Peer Review reports

Government public health organisations are responsible for assessing the risk of importation of infectious diseases (e.g. [ 1 ]). To be effective, such risk assessments can use modelling methods that integrate data on incoming travel volumes from source endemic/epidemic locations through the global travel network, and country-specific epidemiological and vaccine coverage data [ 2 , 3 ]. In addition to assessing the spatio-temporal risk of importation, models can also be used to quantify the effectiveness of specific prevention strategies prior to their implementation, or post-hoc as a means of on-going evaluation and support for preparedness [ 4 ]. This can be accomplished by comparing estimated importation rates with measures in place against scenarios in which border measures are removed.

SARS‑CoV‑2, the causative agent of COVID-19, spread rapidly across the world resulting in nearly 300 million reported cases and 5.5 million reported deaths by the end of 2021 [ 5 ]. From March 2020 to September 2022, the Canadian government implemented border measures to slow the importation of COVID-19 cases arising from international air travel [ 6 ] (Fig.  1 ). These measures included restrictions on foreign nationals entering Canada [ 6 ], flight suspensions from selected countries [ 7 ], vaccination requirements to enter Canada [ 8 ], pre-departure molecular testing for SARS-CoV-2 within 72 h of departure [ 9 ], quarantine and further testing upon entry into Canada [ 10 , 11 ], and post-entry testing. Some travellers were exempt from some or all of the border measures depending on their reason for travel (e.g. providing an essential service) [ 12 ].

Summary of Canadian border measures implemented and eased in 2020–2021 [ 6 , 13 , 14 , 15 ]. NE = Non-essential

During the COVID-19 pandemic, importation models were used to estimate the number of imported cases from domestic and international travel, and assess the impact of border measures [ 16 , 17 , 18 , 19 ]. In Canada, mathematical models were developed within the first few months of the pandemic to assess the impact of importation on local COVID-19 transmission in specific provinces (e.g. Québec and Ontario [ 19 ], and Newfoundland and Labrador [ 20 ]). At the national-level, an importation modelling method was implemented by the Public Health Agency of Canada’s (PHAC) modelling team to assess possible rates of importation of cases throughout the pandemic, with and without border measures. This study aimed to describe the mathematical model developed by PHAC and estimate the weekly importation risk from air travellers into Canadian airports from July to November 2021 as measured by the number of travellers infected with SARS-CoV-2 (i.e. imported cases) and percent positivity, PP (i.e. imported cases normalised by total travel volume). In addition, the impact of pre-departure testing of non-essential travellers to reduce importation risk was assessed by comparing estimated imported cases against counterfactual scenarios.

The model operates at a daily time step to estimate the weekly number of air travellers arriving infected with SARS-CoV-2 at the airport-level from July to November 2021. The model was adapted from a mathematical model previously used to estimate importation risk of dengue and COVID-19 [ 2 , 18 ]. The key model adaptations adjusted for underreporting in COVID-19 case counts, accounted for the impacts of vaccination and pre-departure testing for SARS-CoV-2 to reduce importation risk, and stratified importation risk by SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern (VOC) and variants of interest (VOI).

Air travel volume data

Model input for air travel volumes was derived from two data sources. Daily travel volumes from each country of departure (i.e. the country from which travel to Canada was initiated) to Canada were derived using Canada Border Services Agency’s (CBSA) Advanced Passenger Information in combination with the overall passage data from CBSA (Additional File 1 ). Monthly travel volumes for each itinerary from the origin airport to the final Canadian destination airport were obtained from the International Air Transport Authority (IATA) [ 21 ]. Finally, the CBSA travel volumes were distributed in proportion to the IATA travel volumes to derive model input at the daily and airport levels.

Traveller groups

In the model, travellers were stratified as essential or non-essential based on their reason for travel. Non-essential travellers, which included those who travelled for personal reasons (e.g. tourism, education), were assumed to have a negative pre-departure molecular test result three days prior to their scheduled departure [ 11 ], while essential travellers were exempt from that requirement. Between November 2020 and October 2022, non-essential travellers were required to submit COVID-19 related information [ 22 , 23 ] via the Government of Canada’s (GoC) digital ArriveCan platform at each entry into Canada. This data source, in combination with the CBSA ContactTrace program, were used to derive the weekly country-specific proportions of non-essential travellers in the model ([ 24 ]; Additional file 1 ).

Travellers were also characterized as being Canadian or foreign residents to distinguish their place of residence as being in Canada or another country, respectively. In the model, Canadian residents were assumed to have spent all their time in Canada, except for the period in which they travelled to a non-Canadian country where they could become infected with COVID-19 and then import the infection into Canada. This time spent outside of Canada was assumed to follow a normal distribution with a mean of 15 days and a standard deviation of 2 days according to recent estimates [ 25 ]. Foreign residents were assumed to reside and spend their time only in the country of departure before travel to Canada. This was the country in which they could be infected with SARS-CoV-2 prior to entering Canada. Model input for the country-specific weekly proportions of Canadian and foreign residents were derived from CBSA’s Advanced Passenger Information data (for essential travellers) and ArriveCan and ContactTrace data (for non-essential travellers, Additional file 1 ).

Finally, travellers were stratified by vaccination status to account for any vaccine-induced immunity. For non-essential travellers, the weekly country-specific distributions of vaccine statuses were derived from the ArriveCan and ContactTrace data and could be one of: unvaccinated, partially vaccinated with a GoC approved vaccine, partially vaccinated with a non-GoC approved vaccine, fully vaccinated with GoC approved vaccines, fully vaccinated with non-GoC approved vaccines or fully vaccinated with a mixture of GoC approved and non-GoC approved vaccines. Hereafter, partially vaccinated refers to vaccination with one dose of a two dose vaccine regime while fully vaccinated refers to one dose of a one dose vaccine regime or two doses of a two dose vaccine regime. The vaccination status of essential travellers was not available from the ArriveCan data because these travellers were not required to provide proof of vaccination during the study period. Model input for the daily distributions of vaccination statuses in essential travellers were assumed to follow the vaccine coverage for the country of departure (foreign resident travellers) or for Canada (Canadian resident travellers) as reported by Our World in Data (OWD; [ 5 ]). Vaccination status for essential travellers in the model included only unvaccinated, partially vaccinated or fully vaccinated because OWD did not provide information on vaccine type for us to distinguish between GoC approved or otherwise.

Correcting for underreporting of COVID-19 cases

Reported COVID-19 case data were likely underestimated due to asymptomatic transmission, incomplete testing and imperfect test sensitivity and reporting systems [ 26 ]. We derived country-specific correction factors to inflate case data and better reflect the true prevalence (Additional File 1 ). A semi-Bayesian probabilistic bias approach was used to estimate the number of true cases at the country level, using reported case data and testing rates [ 27 ]. We adapted the method to also account for the evolving population-level immunity due to previous COVID-19 infections and increasing vaccination rates. True case counts were estimated from March to August 2020 and then monthly thereafter to reduce instability in estimates caused by sparse case data at the onset of the pandemic and low testing rates [ 27 ]. The estimated true case count was divided by the reported case count [ 5 , 28 , 29 ] in order to obtain country-specific correction factors for each time period from March 2020 onwards. Finally, a regression modelling approach was implemented using the country-level Gross National Income (GNI) as a predictor [ 30 ] and the calculated correction factor as the dependent variable. This regression model was used to impute the missing correction factors for countries that did not have case, testing, or vaccination data. The GNI was used as a proxy for the effectiveness of the country surveillance system to detect, test and report COVID-19 cases [ 30 ].

Model formulation

The probability of a traveller arriving in Canada infected with SARS-CoV-2 accounts for the vaccination status of the traveller and potential immunity acquired from a previous infection in their country of residence ( cr ). For simplicity, it was assumed that infection- and vaccine-induced immunity did not wane from the beginning of the pandemic until the end of the study period, and prior infections provided complete immunity against re-infection. The probability of a traveller having infection-acquired immunity on any given day d and in country of residence cr \(({Pinf}_{cr,d})\) was calculated as the cumulating proportion of residents reported to have had COVID-19 given the 2020 country population size [ 5 , 31 , 32 ]. For an essential traveller, the probability of vaccine-acquired protection \((Pvac{c\_E}_{cr,d})\) on any given day d and in country of residence cr , was equal to:

where \({VE}_{cr,status}\) , vaccine effectiveness, is the probability that a traveller had complete immunity against infection which varied according to COVID-19 vaccination status (partially or fully vaccinated) and the cr for the assumed type of vaccine (mRNA vaccines or others) (Additional file 1 : Table A2); and \(Pro{p}_{cr,d, status}\) represents the proportion of the population in country \(cr\) for each vaccination status on day d . Since vaccination status information was available for non-essential travellers, their probability of vaccine-acquired protection \((Pvac{c\_NE}_{cr,status})\) was equal to the associated vaccine effectiveness \({VE}_{cr,status}\) .

The probability of a traveller arriving in Canada infected with SARS-CoV-2 depended on their risk of exposure in the country of departure, cd , prior to departure for Canada. The daily probability of infection \(({\beta }_{cd,d})\) for a susceptible person on a given day d in country cd was calculated as the number of new cases (corrected for underreporting) out of the total susceptible population (i.e. the proportion of the population that was not immune to infection with COVID-19 due to prior infection or vaccination). Based on this daily probability of infection, the probability of a traveller arriving in Canada infected with SARS-CoV-2 was calculated according to the traveller’s reason for travel (i.e. essential or non-essential). For an essential traveller, the probability of importation, ( \({P\_E}_{s,cd,cr};\) Eq.  2 and Additional file 1 ), on travel day s was based on the traveller’s probability of acquiring infection on any of the n days prior to departure to Canada, given that they did not have infection-acquired protection \(\left(1-{Pinf}_{cr,d}\right)\) or vaccine-acquired protection \(\left(1-{Pvacc\_E}_{cr,d}\right)\) . Here n represents the sum of the latent and infectious periods for SARS-CoV-2 infections (Table  1 ). The probability of importation for a non-essential traveller, ( \({P\_NE}_{s,cd,cr, status}\) ; Eq.  3 and Additional file 1 ), was based on the traveller’s probability of acquiring infection on any of the ( n - \(\mu\) ) days prior to the test day and receiving a false negative test result on test day, or not being infected on test day and acquiring infection after completing the test prior to departure. Here \(\mu\) represents the number of days between the test and travel days (i.e. set at three days in the model). An estimated molecular test sensitivity ( se ) of 60% was implemented, which represented the mean value when accounting for the variation in sensitivity with respect to time since infection ([ 33 , 34 ]; Additional file 1 ). Similar to essential travellers, the probability of importation for non-essential travellers is conditional on not having infection-acquired protection \(\left(1-{Pinf}_{cr,d}\right)\) or vaccine-acquired protection \(\left(1-{Pvacc\_NE}_{cr,status}\right)\) .

where \({t}_{c}\) is the number of days spent in the country of departure \(cd\) prior to leaving for Canada. For foreign residents, it was assumed that \({{\text{t}}}_{{\text{c}}}>{\text{n}}\) .

Finally, the total number of importations ( \({I}_{w}\) ) for every epi-week, w , was calculated using the probability of air travellers arriving infected ( \({P}_{k,\upgamma ,s}\) ) for each airport-level origin–destination travel route ( k ), each travel group (γ, i.e. Canadian or foreign resident, vaccination status, essential or non-essential traveller) and each day of the week ( \(s\) ), and the corresponding travel volume ( \({v}_{k,\upgamma ,s}\) ):

Importation estimates were stratified by VOCs and VOIs listed by the USA Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. It was assumed that the proportion of variants reported in the GISAID database [ 39 ] for each country during a three-week period (including the week modelled and the two prior weeks) was the same proportion that would be observed in infected travellers arriving in Canada from these countries.

Modelling importation risk and counterfactual scenarios

We used the model to estimate importation risk from July 11 to November 27, 2021 under the assumption that all non-essential travellers were required to have a negative molecular pre-departure test result three days prior to departure for Canada. As well as being our most probable estimate of the true importation risk given the testing requirements that were in effect during the modelled time period, these model estimates formed our baseline to compare with two counterfactual scenarios. Model output is presented by country of departure, SARS-CoV-2 variant and traveller groups. In addition, the number of infected travellers arriving at each of Canada’s four largest airports (Toronto Pearson, Montréal-Trudeau, Vancouver International, and Calgary International) as their final destination are presented. Finally, we mapped country-level model outputs in terms of the cumulative number of importations, percent positivity, and travel volumes for the total study period using ArcGIS Pro version 2.9.0 (ESRI, Redlands, CA).

Two counterfactual scenarios were simulated from July 11 to November 27, 2021 to measure the impact of pre-departure testing on non-essential travellers to reduce importation risk as compared to the baseline. For counterfactual scenario 1, fully vaccinated (with or without GoC approved vaccines) non-essential travellers were not tested, and for counterfactual scenario 2 there was no testing of any non-essential travellers. For both counterfactual scenarios, the model was run for all non-essential travellers, whereas outputs from the baseline scenario were used for essential travellers. The weekly percent change in the total number of imported cases for each counterfactual scenario was compared to the baseline scenario.

Model stochasticity was implemented through the distributions of parameter input values for vaccine effectiveness, latent and infectious periods, and for Canadian travellers, travel duration. For each of these parameters, a value was randomly chosen from a pre-defined distribution (Table  1 ) for every category of traveller, with these categories consisting of unique combinations of origin–destination airport pathway, essential status and day. The baseline and counterfactual scenarios were simulated 50 times. We only present the mean results because the confidence intervals were too narrow to visualise in the plots. All model simulations and analyses were conducted in R version 4.1.0 [ 40 ].

The importation model estimated that a total of 7,863 infected travellers entered Canada by air from July 11 to November 27, 2021. Most cases originated from the USA (2,890 cases), the country with the highest incoming travel volume to Canada (1.46 million travellers) and a PP of 0.198% (Fig.  2 a, b). Other countries with a high risk of importation were Mexico (1,034 cases; 0.414% PP; 249,462 travellers), the United Kingdom (429 cases; 0.277% PP; 154,715 travellers), and France (335 cases, 0.145% PP; 230,295 travellers) (Fig.  2 ). The relative ranking of contributing countries evolved over time, and differed between destination airports (Figs. 2 and 3 , and Fig. A2 in Additional file 1 ).

Maps illustrating results at the country of departure level from July 11, 2021 to November 27, 2021 for A estimated travel volume to Canada, and model estimates for B COVID-19 percent positivity of travellers entering Canada, and C number of imported COVID-19 cases to Canada. The destination country, Canada, is shown in white. Countries in grey either have unavailable travel volume data and/or reported case counts

Model output for the mean number of SARS-CoV-2 infected air travellers by variant and country of departure arriving at their final destination in one of the four largest Canadian airports, as estimated from July 11 to November 27, 2021

The composition of SARS-CoV-2 variants also varied between airports and through time. Throughout the study period the Delta variant was modelled to be the predominant infectious agent in travellers arriving at the Canadian destination airports. There were also estimated contributions from the Gamma, Mu, and Alpha variants, especially prior to August (Fig.  3 ; Fig. A2 in Additional file 1 ).

Output from the importation model suggests that the number of imported cases and PP also varied over time. There was a peak in August, followed by a decrease until the end of October, and a subsequent increase in November (Fig.  4 ). In the baseline scenario, the mean weekly number of imported cases ranged from 145 to 539 cases and PP ranged from 0.15 to 0.28%. Most cases were imported by non-essential travellers (range: 84–398 per week), who comprised the largest proportion of travel volume (range: 79–90% per week) and populations with full vaccination status (range: 67–92% per week). In contrast, essential travellers had fewer imported cases (range: 62–154 per week), with a smaller travel volume (range: 10–21% per week) and populations of full vaccination status (range: 29–76% per week). Despite having lower importation numbers, the PP in essential travellers was consistently higher (range: 0.37–0.65% per week) than non-essential travellers (range: 0.12–0.24% per week).

Weekly model inputs for the study period (July to November 2021) for A estimated travel volumes into Canada for essential and non-essential travellers, B proportions of fully vaccinated travellers estimated for essential travellers given global vaccine coverage [ 5 ] and reported for non-essential travellers [ 23 ], and model output for C percent positivity and D number of imported COVID-19 cases into Canada as stratified into essential and non-essential travellers and combined (overall) for the baseline scenario (pre-departure testing of all non-essential travellers), counterfactual scenario 1 (no pre-departure testing of fully vaccinated non-essential travellers) and counterfactual scenario 2 (no pre-departure testing of any non-essential travellers). In C ) and D ), the essential traveller curve is identical for all three scenarios since the model for essential travellers was not repeated for the counterfactual scenarios

The counterfactual analysis suggested that pre-departure testing in non-essential travellers reduced importation risk. Compared to the baseline scenario, the risk of importation in non-essential travellers was greater in the counterfactual scenarios, with up to 775 weekly importations (PP ≤ 0.38%) when fully vaccinated travellers were exempt from pre-departure testing (counterfactual scenario 1), and up to 961 weekly imported cases (PP ≤ 0.47%) when all non-essential travellers were exempt from testing (counterfactual 2; Fig.  4 ). Pre-departure testing in the baseline scenario averted 30% of cases occurring over the study period compared to counterfactual scenario 1, with 12 to 36% of cases prevented weekly (Fig.  5 ). Even more cases (43%) were prevented when comparing the baseline scenario to counterfactual scenario 2, with 36 to 45% of cases prevented weekly (Fig.  5 ). The percentage of cases averted in counterfactual scenario 1 increased with time, especially between July and September. For counterfactual scenario 2 the temporal trends on the impact of testing were less pronounced (Fig.  5 ).

Weekly percentage of infected travellers averted from arriving at Canadian airports from July to November 2021 when comparing the baseline scenario (pre-departure testing of all non-essential travellers) to counterfactual scenario 1 (no pre-departure testing of fully vaccinated non-essential travellers) and to counterfactual scenario 2 (no pre-departure testing of any non-essential travellers)

A mathematical model estimating the importation risk of COVID-19 into Canada by combining detailed travel volume data with the evolving global epidemiological landscape and country-specific levels of vaccine- and infection-acquired immunity is presented in this study. The study results suggest that the risk, as measured through the number of travellers arriving infected with SARS-CoV-2 and PP, varied over time by country and Canadian destination airports. Considering the entire study period, the highest overall number of imported COVID-19 cases were estimated to originate from the USA, Mexico, UK, and France. Findings from this study highlight the differential impact of essential and non-essential travellers on COVID-19 importations between July and November 2021. Notably, results from the counterfactual modelling analyses support the effectiveness of pre-departure molecular testing in all non-essential travellers to reduce the number of imported COVID-19 cases.

Flexibility in the model structure and detailed importation risk profiles allow for more nuanced assessments supporting evidence-based policy decision making. By including COVID-19 variant data and detailed travel volumes at the airport level, the model provides a comprehensive characterisation of importation risk by country of departure, variant and point of entry throughout Canada. Furthermore, estimates of importation risk at the airport level allows an evidence-based assessment of the risk and the potential impact on transmission dynamics in the region where the airport is located. In the case of an emergent VOC, the model outputs could be valuable to help target surveillance and on-arrival response efforts towards locations where passengers at higher risk are landing.

Our modelling approach enabled a comprehensive understanding of importation risk through two measures. The PP represents the mean individual-level probability of importation for a given traveller group or country. The number of imported cases provides insight on the level of risk that the traveller group or country poses to Canada by considering the relative importance of both PP and travel volume. The distinction in measures helps interpret the potential roles of different traveller groups or countries on importation risk. For example, model results suggest that essential travellers had a substantially higher PP than non-essential travellers during the study period. This difference can largely be attributed to pre-departure testing requirements for non-essential travellers as supported by results from the counterfactual analyses. However, despite higher PP in essential travellers than non-essential travellers, the overall number of imported cases from essential travellers was low because there were far fewer essential travellers. Another example from the country-level perspective has the opposite conclusion. Model output indicated that travellers from the USA contributed the highest number of imported cases because travel volumes from the USA were higher than any other country, despite the PP of travellers from the USA being lower compared to other countries (e.g. Mexico, Brazil). We found using both measures together is more revealing of importation risk than relying on one alone.

As in [ 41 ], which demonstrates the effectiveness of the pre-departure testing program, our model suggests that there would have been nearly twice as many importations estimated to occur in the absence of a pre-departure testing requirement (counterfactual scenario 2). It is important to note that model results are expected to be conservative in terms of the impact of pre-departure testing, given that the mean test sensitivity chosen in our model (i.e. 60%) fell on the lower range of plausible values. The temporal increase in the surplus cases that would have occurred had non-essential fully vaccinated travellers not undergone pre-departure testing (counterfactual scenario 1) can be attributed in part to a growing proportion of non-essential travellers becoming fully vaccinated through time. With vaccination, a larger number of travellers were exempt from the pre-departure testing requirement in counterfactual scenario 1, resulting in increased importations compared to the baseline scenario. The observed temporal increase in fully vaccinated travellers could be explained by the following factors: 1) increased second dose uptake within the Canadian population [ 42 ], 2) permitting fully vaccinated non-essential citizens and permanent residents of the US with a GoC approved vaccine to enter Canada for discretionary travel, with exceptions, effective August 9, 2021, and 3) extending factor #2 on September 7, 2021 to all other countries [ 8 , 14 ]. Consequently, toward the end of the study period, the difference in the impact of removing pre-departure testing in fully vaccinated non-essential travellers as opposed to all non-essential travellers was relatively small. While this analysis highlights the impact of the pre-departure testing program, it also demonstrates the versatility of the model in assessing and comparing the relative influence of different prevention strategies.

Although evaluating the impact of international COVID-19 importations on the local spread in Canada is beyond the scope of this paper, it has been explored previously in different contexts. Results from modelling studies suggest that case importation may have played an important role in local dynamics during the early phase of the COVID-19 pandemic and for emergent variants [ 19 , 20 , 43 ] or in countries with low prevalence and limited public health measures in place to restrict domestic spread [ 44 ]. However, international travel restrictions appear to be less effective once the disease is widespread and outbreaks are self-sustaining in the destination country [ 43 , 45 , 46 ]. In that specific context, imported cases would have a relatively small contribution to local transmission dynamics. As such, the impact of international travel restrictions relies on complex and dynamic factors, and requires evaluation and adaptation to the evolving local and global epidemiological situation, while also taking into account their economic and social costs. Previous work evaluating the potential impact of the border re-opening on disease spread within Canada [ 47 ] has been performed using an agent-based model [ 48 , 49 , 50 , 51 ]. However, further analyses would be needed to fully assess the impact of the pre-departure testing requirements on local transmission dynamics among the Canadian population.

Despite the strengths of our modelling approach there are important limitations to consider. First, for the study presented, we did not have access to border testing data for validating model results. Furthermore, as with any highly data driven model, error in input data will decrease accuracy of model output. For instance, the combination of multiple datasets to obtain air travel volume could have led to biased model inputs by traveller group. However, these data sources had the advantage of accounting for Notices to Airmen (NOTAMs) on flight suspensions from specific countries during the study period. Furthermore, the model relies on robust global surveillance data. Poor data quality and quantity can result in biased outcomes, especially in countries with limited testing capacities and unreliable reporting systems. A strength of the current model is the incorporation of a modified semi-Bayesian probabilistic bias approach, implemented to correct the number of reported cases by adjusting for under-ascertainment [ 27 ]. Although the country-specific case count estimates from this methodology align well with other published estimates (Fig. A1 in Additional file 1 ), a minimal amount of data is still required to produce reliable results.

Other limitations arise from the model assumptions. First, by assuming that there was complete protection against reinfection and no-waning in post-infection- and vaccine-induced immunity, model output could underestimate importation risk. Secondly, it was assumed that Canadian travellers only visit one country (the country of departure) and for a limited period prior to departure for Canada and that foreign travellers remain in their respective country of departure without travelling to other countries throughout the pandemic. We justify these assumptions because travel was greatly reduced during the pandemic [ 52 , 53 ]. Also, we erred on a simplified model structure in the absence of having complete data on travel history prior to departure for Canada. These assumptions likely reduced the accuracy in estimating travellers’ probabilities for vaccine- (for foreign essential travellers) and infection-acquired protection (for all travellers) and probabilities of exposure in the country of departure prior to travel. It is however difficult to know if the resulting error over- or underestimated importation risk. Finally, the model assumed that the traveller population was represented by the underlying country population in terms of the vaccination coverage (for essential travellers only), age demographics and socio-economic landscape, which could potentially lead to bias in terms of estimated exposure risk. For instance, travellers departing from countries with large wealth and income inequalities may have higher quality housing (i.e. less overcrowding) and better access to vaccination, and hence lower SARS-CoV-2 exposure compared to the general population from which model estimates for infection probabilities were calculated [ 54 ].

Our mathematical model provided a detailed COVID-19 importation risk profile for air travellers arriving at Canadian airports from international departures. Model outputs indicated travel groups and countries contributing high importation risk as measured by the number of imported cases and PP. Essential travellers were estimated to contribute fewer importations than non-essential travellers. Furthermore, model results suggest that pre-departure molecular testing in non-essential travellers likely led to lower numbers of imported cases and PP than when compared to counterfactual scenarios that were more lenient. The model we present here was applied to a Canadian COVID-19 context, including an assessment of pre-departure testing, but could be adapted to other similar infectious diseases and border measures, such as vaccination mandates on specific traveller groups and flight suspensions from high-risk countries. As the rate of emerging infectious diseases continues to increase with global environmental change [ 55 ], versatile tools such as this importation risk model can help support evidence-based border policy development.

Availability of data and materials

The data that support the findings of this study are available from CBSA, IATA, and GISAID but restrictions apply to the availability of these data, which were used under license for the current study, and so are not publicly available. Data are however available from the authors upon reasonable request and with permission of CBSA, IATA, and GISAID.

Abbreviations

Canada Border Services Agency

International Air Transport Authority

Government of Canada

Gross National Income

Our World in Data

Percent Positivity

Variants of concern

Variants of interest

Notice to Airmen

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Acknowledgements

We would like to thank Samir Mechai for his help in processing the weekly GISAID data on the COVID-19 variants, Dige Guan for providing aggregated data from ArriveCan and ContactTrace, David Champredon for support in the calculation of a mean test sensitivity estimate and Christopher Bell, Kerry Watkins, Rachel Rodin, Elizabeth Harris, Daniele Curtis, and Shirley Bryan for providing critical review and comments on the manuscript.

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Author information

Rachael M. Milwid and Vanessa Gabriele-Rivet contributed equally to this work and share first authorship.

Authors and Affiliations

Public Health Risk Sciences Division, National Microbiology Laboratory, Public Health Agency of Canada, St-Hyacinthe, QC, Canada

Rachael M. Milwid, Vanessa Gabriele-Rivet, Nicholas H. Ogden, Patricia Turgeon & Erin E. Rees

Public Health Risk Sciences Division, National Microbiology Laboratory, Public Health Agency of Canada, Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada

Aamir Fazil

Department of Pathology and Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Université de Montréal, Saint-Hyacinthe, QC, Canada

Nicholas H. Ogden, Patricia Turgeon & Erin E. Rees

Physique Des Particules, Université de Montréal, Faculté Des Arts Et Des Sciences, Montréal, QC, Canada

David London

Emergency Management Branch, Global Public Health Intelligence Network Tiger Team, Public Health Agency of Canada, Ottawa, ON, Canada

Simon de Montigny

Epidemiology of Zoonoses and Public Health Research Unit, Faculté de médecine vétérinaire, Université de Montréal, Saint-Hyacinthe, QC, Canada

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ER, NO, VG-R, and RMM designed the study. ER, VG-R and RMM contributed to the model development and analysis. DL contributed to the equation formation and SDM provided support with interpretation of the results. VG-R, RMM and ER wrote the manuscript and ER, NO, VG-R, AF, PT, DL and SDM edited the final manuscript. VG-R and RMM contributed equally to this work and share first authorship. ER is the senior author.

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Correspondence to Vanessa Gabriele-Rivet .

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This file contains a detailed description of the methods, data sources and additional results.

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Milwid, R.M., Gabriele-Rivet, V., Ogden, N.H. et al. A methodology for estimating SARS-CoV-2 importation risk by air travel into Canada between July and November 2021. BMC Public Health 24 , 1088 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-024-18563-1

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Received : 16 September 2023

Accepted : 09 April 2024

Published : 19 April 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-024-18563-1

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