tourism transport characteristics

The Geography of Transport Systems

The spatial organization of transportation and mobility

B.7 – Tourism and Transport

Author: dr. jean-paul rodrigue.

Tourism, as an economic activity, relies on transportation to bring tourists to destinations, and transportation can be part of the touristic experience.

1. The Emergence of the Tourism Industry

Since the 1970s where tourism became increasingly affordable, the number of international tourists has more than doubled . The expansion of international tourism has a large impact on the discipline of transport geography since it links traffic generation, interactions at different scales (from the local to the global), and the related transportation modes and terminals. As of 2016, 1.2 billion international tourist receipts were accounted for, representing more than 10% of the global population. The industry is also a large employer accounting for 10% of all the global employment; 30 tourist visits are usually associated with one job. 30% of the global trade of services is accounted for by tourism. Tourism dominantly takes place in Europe and North America , but geographical diversification is taking place.

Traveling has always been an important feature, but its function has substantially evolved. Historically, travelers were explorers and merchants looking to learn about regions, potential markets and to find goods and resources. The risks and exoticism associated also attracted the elite that could afford the large expenses and the time required to travel to other remote destinations. Many wrote realistic and even imaginary travel accounts. As time moved on and as transportation became more reliable, traveling became a more mundane activity taking place in an organized environment; tourism. In the modern world, traveling is more centered around annual holidays and can be reasonably well predicted.

As an economic activity, tourism is characterized by a high demand level of elasticity. As transport costs are significant for international transportation, cost fluctuations strongly influence demand. Therefore, transport is a key element in the tourism industry. The demand in international and even national transport infrastructures implies a large number of people to be transported in an efficient, fast, and inexpensive manner. It requires heavy investments and complex organization. Well-organized terminals and planned schedules are essential in promoting adequate transportation facilities for tourists, notably since the industry is growing at a fast rate.

Transport is the cause and the effect of the growth of tourism. First, the improved facilities have incited tourism , and the expansion of tourism has prompted the development of transport infrastructure. Accessibility is the main function behind the basics of tourism transport. In order to access sought-after destinations, tourists have a range of transportation modes that are often used in a sequence. Air transport is the primary mode for international tourism, which usually entails travel over long distances. Growth rates of international air traffic are pegged to growth rates of international tourism.

Transport policies and national regulations can influence destinations available to tourists. One dimension concerns the openness to tourism through travel visa restrictions , which vary substantially depending on the countries of origin of tourists. Unsurprisingly, travelers from developed countries, particularly Europe, face the least restrictions, while travelers from developing countries face a much more stringent array of restrictions. Another dimension concerns the provision of infrastructure. If the public sector does not cope with the demand in terms of transport infrastructures, the tourist industry might be impaired in its development. However, land transport networks in various countries are designed to meet the needs of commercial movements that tourism requires.

Tourism usually contributes enough to the local economy that governments are more than willing to improve road networks or airport facilities, especially in locations with limited economic opportunities other than tourism. There are, however, significant differences in the amount of spending per type of mode, namely between cruise and air transport tourism. Cruise shipping tourism provides much less revenue than a tourist brought by air travel. A significant reason is that cruise lines are capturing as much tourism expenses within their ships as possible (food, beverages, entertainment, shopping) and have short port calls, often less than a day. Tourists arriving by air transport usually stay several days at the same location and use local amenities.

2. Means and Modes

Tourism uses all the standard transportation modes since travelers rely on existing passenger transport systems, from local transit systems to global air transportation.

• Car traveling is usually an independent transport conveyance where the traveler decides the route and the length of the trip. It is usually cheaper since road fees are not directly paid and provided as a public. It is the only transportation mode that does not require transfers, in the sense that the whole journey, from door to door can be achieved. Along major highway corridors, service activities such as restaurants, gas stations, and hotels have agglomerated to service the traffic, many of which touristic. Car transport is the dominant mode in world tourism (77% of all journeys), notably because of advantages such as flexibility, price, and independence. Tourists will often rent cars to journey within their destinations, which has triggered an active clustering of car rental companies adjacent to main transport terminals (airports, train stations) and touristic venues.
• Coach traveling uses the same road network as cars. Coaches are well suited for local mass tourism but can be perceived as a nuisance if in too large numbers since they require a large amount of parking space. They can be used for short duration local tours (hours) but also can be set for multi-days journeys where the coach is the conveyance moving tourists from one resort to another.
• Rail travel was the dominant form of passenger transport before the age of the automobile. The railway network usually reflects more the commercial needs of the national economy then holiday tourist flows which can make it a less preferred choice as a traveling mode. The railway systems of several countries, notably in Europe, have seen massive investments for long-distance routes and high-speed services. Due to the scenery or the amenities provided, rail transportation can also be a tourist destination in itself. Several short rail lines that no longer had commercial potential have been converted for tourism.
• Air transport is by far the most effective transport mode. Notably because of prices, only 12.5% of the tourists travel by plane, but for international travel, this share is around 40%. Air transport has revolutionized the geographical aspect of distances; the most remote areas can now be reached any journey around the world can be measured in terms of hours of traveling. Business travelers are among the biggest users of airline facilities, but low-cost air carriers have attracted a significant market segment mainly used for tourism.
• Cruises are mainly providing short sea journeys of about a week. Cruising has become a significant tourist industry. Cruise ships act as floating resorts where guests can enjoy amenities and entertainment while being transported along a chain of port calls. The international market for cruising was about 22.2 million tourists in 2015, which involves an annual growth rate above 7% since 1990. The main cruise markets are the Caribbean and the Mediterranean, with Alaska and Northern Europe fjords also popular during the summer season. This industry is characterized by a high level of market concentration with a few companies, such as Carnival Corporation and Royal Caribbean Cruises who account for about 70% of the market. The impacts of cruising on the local economy are mitigated as the strategy of cruising companies is to retain as much income as possible. This implies that tourists spend most of their money on the cruise ship itself (gift shops, entertainment, casinos, bars, etc.) or on-island facilities owned by cruise shipping companies.

3. Mass Tourism and Mass Transportation

Tourism transport can be divided into two categories:

• Independent means of travel ; controlled by individual tourists who book them on their own. This mainly involves the private automobile, but also mass conveyances that are booked to travel on an individual basis such as regularly scheduled flights, rail connections, ferries, and even cruises.
• Mass travel ; where tourists travel in organized groups. The most common form involves chartered buses and flights used for this single purpose.

When tourism was mainly for the elite, independent means of travel prevailed. However, the emergence of mass tourism and the significant revenue it provides for local economies required the setting of mass transportation systems and specialized firms such as travel agencies organizing travel on behalf of their customers. These firms were able to take advantage of their pricing power being able to negotiate large volumes of passengers for carriers and hotels. Some were even able to become air carriers, such as Thomas Cook Airlines and Air Transat, which are major charterers in their respective markets. Paradoxically, the growth of online travel booking services has favored the re-emergence of independent means of travel since an individual is able to book complex travel services, including transport and hotel accommodations. Thus, the segmentation of the travel industry is linked with the segmentation of the supporting transport systems.

The seasonality of tourism has an important impact on the use and allocation of transportation assets.

• Air transport has a notable seasonality where tourism results in variations in demand, summer being the peak season. Because of this seasonality and the high cost of acquiring additional assets to accommodate peak demand, the airline industry has pricing power during peak touristic demand. This also leads the seasonal charter services to pick up the potential unmet demand. During the winter, charterers focus on subtropical destinations (e.g. Caribbean, Mexico), while during the summer there is more a focus on the European market.
• Cruises also have a seasonality where many cruise lines are repositionning their assets according to variations in the destination preferences. During winter months, the Caribbean is an important destination market, while during the summer, destinations like the Mediterranean, Alaska, and Norway are more prevalent.

4. Covid-19 and its Impacts

Related topics.

• Air Transport
• Airport Terminals
• Transportation and Economic Development
• The Cruise Industry

Bibliography

• Graham, A. and F. Dobruszkes (eds) (2019) Air Transport – A Tourism Perspective, Amsterdam: Elsevier.
• World Economic Forum (2017) The travel & tourism competitiveness report 2017, World Economic Forum.

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Tourism Transportation

The transport industry has gained a vital place in the global network system and is one of the most important components of the tourism infrastructure. It now becomes easier for people to travel from one place to another because of the various modes of transportation available.

The earliest forms of transportation in the ancient times were animals on land and sails on the sea. Travel development from the need to survive, to expand and develop trade to far off countries, and the hunger to capture new lands and territories. This was followed by the use of steams and electricity in the nineteenth century followed by internal combustion engines.

Aircraft with the jet engines were introduced in the 1950s . With the development of technology, travel became faster and more and people could travel around the globe.

Since tourism involves the movement of people from their places of residence to the places of tourist attractions, every tourist has to travel to reach the places of interest. Transport is, thus, one of the major components of the tourism industry. To develop any place of tourist attraction there have to be proper, efficient, and safe modes of transportation.

Transportation is vital to tourism. Studies have shown that tourists spend almost 30 to 40 percent of their total holiday expenditure on transportation and the remaining on food, accommodation, and other activities. This aspect once again highlights the importance of transportation.

A tourist can travel by a variety of means. The tourism professional, as well as tourist, should be aware of the various modes of transport available to reach the destination and at the destination.

The various mode of transport can be broadly divided into the following three categories :

• Air transport
• Land transport
• Water transport

Air Transport

Due to the growth of air transport in recent years, long-distance travel has become much simpler and affordable. Distance is now measured in hours and not in kilometers. The world has indeed shrunk and becomes a small village.

The development of air transport mostly occurred after World War I and II. Commercial airlines were created for travelers. Because of increasing air traffic, the commercial sector grows rapidly. Before the World War II, Swissair already was carrying around 14-16 passenger between Zurich to London.

The first commercial service was introduced by KLM, the Dutch Airlines, in 1920 between Amsterdam and London. Commercial air travel grew mostly after World War II. More facilities were introduced and there was more comfort in travel.

Jet flights were inaugurated by Great Britain in the year 1952. In the year 1958 Pan American introduced the Boeing 707 services between Paris and New York. Due to the introduction of jet flights, the year 1959 onward saw a tremendous increase in air traffic. The concept of chartered flights was also introduced during this year.

Jumbo jets have revolutionized travel. A large number of people travel by air because of the speed, comfort, and economy in terms of time saved.

The modern era, thus, is the era of mass air travel. After road transport, air travel is the most popular mode of travel, particularly for international travel. For the business travelers, air transport is more convenient as it saves their precious time and offers a luxurious and hassle-free travel. Many airlines nowadays offer special facilities to the business tourist such as Internet on board.

There two types of airlines . These are following as:

Scheduled airlines operate as regular schedules. Chartered airlines or the non-scheduled airlines operate only when there is a demand, mainly during the tourist seasons. The chartered flights work out cheaper than the scheduled carriers as they are operated only when there is a high load factor. Chartered flights provide cheaper packages to the destination such as Portugal and Spain.

India receives more than 400 chartered flights, especially to Goa. Goa has a maximum number of chartered flights coming in during the months of December to January.

The International Air Transport Association (IATA) regulates international air travel. IATA has more than 105 major airlines of the world as its members. IATA regulates the price of tickets on different sectors of travel in the world. The concerned government decides the domestic fares.

The airfares are normally determined on the volume and the air travel demand in an area.

The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) is an intergovernmental organization established in the year 1945. Only the government of the country can become a member. The government has to enter into a bilateral agreement for the frequency of flights for operating commercial airlines between them.

Airlines are classified into two broad categories namely small carrier and large carrier . The small carrier also known as commuter airlines have less than 30 seats . The larger carriers, also known as major airlines fly direct routes between the major cities and seat and seat 100 to 800 passengers .

The recent boom in the aviation technology has certainly bought some new development to airlines industry. There has been a major change in the size of the aircraft.

Every year there are a growing number of new airlines being introduced. Because of the growing number of new private airlines, there is stiff competition among them. This has resulted in a considerable reduction in air fairs and has boosted the growth of air traffic. To woo and attract customers, many airlines offer cheaper promotional fares such as excursion fares, group fares, and apex fares.

Million of tonnes of cargo and mail are also handled by the air transport industry.

Road Transport

Humans travel place to place in search of food in the primitive era. They tamed animals such as the dog, ox, horse, camel, reindeer, elephants, etc. for carrying the load and traveling. After the discovery of the wheel, humans developed the cart, the chariot, and the carriage.

Until the seventeenth century, horses were used for traveling. Later on better roads were constructed and some of these roads developed into trade routes, which linked many countries. One of them is the Silk Route which was used for transporting silk from China to Persia and the Blue Gem road from Iran to Afghanistan and India.

Today, the most popular and widely used mode of road travel is the automobile or the car. Road transport is dominated by the automobile, which provides views of the landscape and the freedom to travel. Tourist often travels with their entire family for holidays.

To promote tourism , the vehicle required are coaches and tourist cars. Tourist coaches or buses are preferred for large tourist groups traveling together on a specified tour itinerary. Many tourists prefer to travel in comfort and privacy and hire cars. Cars of various makes and standards are available on a rental basis.

Tourist also uses their own motorcar when holidaying. Cars and coaches carried long distance by train facility is also available in some countries.

The car rental segment of the tourism industry is in a very advanced stage in foreign countries. The client can book a car, himself or through agents, and make it wait at the desired place at the destination. The client can then drive the car himself /herself on reaching the destination.

Rail Transport

The railway is the most economical, convenient, and popular mode of travel especially for long distance travel all over the world. The railroad was invented in the seventeenth century in Germany with wooden tracks. The first steel rail was developed in the USA during the early 1800s . The railways revolutionized transportation and mass movement of people seen in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.

The broad gauge lines account for more than 55 percent of the total network and carry 85 percent of total traffic. The steam engines have been replaced by diesel and electric engines which have helped in increasing the speed. Railways have promoted tourism by introducing a special tourist train.

In Europe, the railway systems of six European countries have been clubbed to make rail travel easier for the people of Europe. A rail passenger can buy a ticket in any one country of Europe and travel through six countries. For the foreign tourists, Eurail Passes offer unlimited discounts travel in express trains for periods ranging from a week to three months. In the USA, AMTRAK operates trains.

Water Transport

Humans have been traveling through water since time immemorial and carried good and people from one place to another. The boats progressed from the simple raft with some modifications and improvement and were first used around 6000 BC.

Travel by ship was the only means for traveling overseas until the middle of the twentieth century. The Cunard Steamship Company was formed in 1838 with regular steamship services operating on the North Atlantic. During the World War I, in 1914 the operations of the steamship company had to be suspended. After the World War I, the steamship luxury liners were back to business till World War II.

After the World War II, the large luxury liners again started their operations all over the world and carried passengers and holidaymakers. Some of the linear were very large accommodating up to 1000 passengers and had facilities like swimming pools, cinema halls, shops, casino, etc.

The cruise lines are the new attraction among the tourist. The cruises are booked several months in advance for trips into the tropical and sub-tropical waters of the Hawaii, Caribbean, Mediterranean, etc. Water transport today plays two main roles in travel and tourism namely ferrying and cruising .

Modern vessels such as the wave -piercing, the hydrofoil and the hovercraft are the over the water transport and used for short distance routes.

Water transportation is also used in riverboat travel. The Mississippi River has been a popular tourist river since the first settlers came to the USA. Today, tourists enjoy two or three-day luxury trips along the river. In Europe, the Rhine, winding through the grapes growing areas of Germany, offers similar leisure tourist trips.

Motorized ferries and launches are used over rivers to transport tourists and locals, to transport vehicles, and offer facilities such as car parking, restaurants, viewing decks, etc.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Various Modes of Transport

Tourist has a wide variety of transport options available today. There are several advantages and disadvantages of all the model of transport. These are following as:

Direct root, high speed, quick service, social and political significance, luxurious travel are the advantages of air transportation.

High cost, jet lag, unsuitable for heavy bulk cargo, accidents always fatal, international rule to be observed are the disadvantages of air transportation.

Flexibility, reliable, door to door service, economical, supplements other modes of transport, quick transit for short distances are the advantages of road transport.

Slow speed, carrying capacity limited, accidents, none- AC coaches not so comfortable, comfort depends upon the conditions of roads are the disadvantages of road transport.

Long distance travel cheaper, carrying capacity large, dependable service, quicker than road transportation, ability to view scenery en route is the advantage of railways.

Inflexible, unfit to hilly regions, difficulties in rural areas, dining car facilities not always available are the disadvantage of railways.

Economical, carrying capacity enormously, develops international and coastal trades are the advantages of water transport.

Transportation As An Attraction

To attract customers as well as take them around an attraction, destination developers have used many forms of transport to move people around. These novel modes of transport ensure that major exhibits are viewed in a certain sequence and ensure that the crowd moves through at a reliable pace.

Overcrowding should be avoided at all costs to prevent untoward incidents and to maintain the beauty of the place. Tourist can cover the entire park in a shorter duration with the help of these modes of transport.

Transportation is the most crucial component of the tourism infrastructure. It is required not only for reaching the destination but also visiting the site and moving about at the destination. Variety in modes of transportation adds color to the overall tourism experience.

Unusual forms of transportation are also an attraction such as the cable cars in hilly terrain, the funicular railway, or jet boating. The choice of mode of transport is vast and tourists can choose a mode to suit their budget. They can opt for scheduled or non-scheduled transport such as the hiring of vehicles, boats, coaches or trains so that they can travel with their group.

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Chapter 2. Transportation

Morgan Westcott

Learning Objectives

• Understand the role of transportation in the tourism industry
• Recognize milestones in the development of the air industry and explain how profitability is measured in this sector
• Report on the historic importance of rail travel and challenges to rail operations today
• Describe water-based transportation segments including cruise travel and passenger ferries
• Recognize the importance of transportation infrastructure in tourism destinations
• Specify elements of sightseeing transportation, and explain current issues regarding rental vehicles and taxis
• Identify and relate industry trends and issues including fuel costs, environmental impacts, and changing weather

The transportation sector is vital to the success of our industry. Put simply, if we can’t move people from place to place — whether by air, sea, or land — we don’t have an industry. This chapter takes a broad approach, covering each segment of the transportation sector globally, nationally, and at home in British Columbia.

Let’s start our review by taking a look at the airline industry.

According to the International Air Transport Association (IATA), in 2014, airlines transported 3.3 billion people across a network of almost 50,000 routes generating 58 million jobs and $2.4 trillion in business activity (International Air Transport Association, 2014a).

Spotlight On: International Air Transport Association

The International Air Transport Association (IATA) is the trade association for the world’s airlines, representing around 240 airlines or 84% of total air traffic. It supports many areas of aviation activity and helps formulate industry policy on critical aviation issues (IATA, 2014b). For more information, visit the  International Air Transport Association website : http://www.iata.org

The first commercial (paid) passenger flight took place in Florida on New Year’s Day 1914 as a single person was transported across Tampa Bay (IATA 2014a). There have been a number of international aviation milestones since that flight, as illustrated in Table 2.1.

Rules and Regulations

Aviation is a highly regulated industry as it crosses many government jurisdictions. This section explores key airline regulations in more detail.

The term open skies refers to policies that allow national airlines to fly to, and above, other countries. These policies lift restrictions where countries have good relationships, freeing up the travel of passengers and goods.

Take a Closer Look: The 1944 Chicago Convention on International Civil Aviation

This document contains the original statements from the convention that created the airline industry as we know it, providing a preamble statement as well as detailed articles pertaining to a range of issues from cabotage to pilotless aircraft. Read the 1944 Chicago Convention on International Civil Aviation [PDF] : www.icao.int/publications/Documents/7300_orig.pdf

Canada’s approach to open skies is the Blue Sky Policy , first implemented in 2006. The National Airlines Council of Canada (NACC) and Canadian Airports Council (CAC) support the Blue Sky Policy.

While opening up a ir transport agreements (ATAs) with other jurisdictions is important, the Canadian government doesn’t provide blanket arrangements, instead negotiating “when it is in Canada’s overall interest to do so” (Government of Canada, 2014a). Some su ggest the government should be more liberal with air access so more competitors can enter the market, potentially attracting more visitors to the country (Gill and Raynor, 2003).

Taxes and Fees

According to a 2012 Senate study on issues related to the Canadian airline industry, Canadian travellers are being grounded by airline fees, fuel surcharges, security taxes, airport improvement fees, and other additional costs. Airports are charged rental fees by the Canadian government ($4.8 billion from 1992 to 2004), which they pass on to the airlines, who in turn transfer the costs to travellers. Some think eliminating rental fees would make Canadian airports more competitive, and view rental and other fees as the reason 5 million Canadians went south of the border for flights in 2013, where passenger fees are 230% lower than in Canada (Hermiston and Steele, 2014).

Profitability

Running an airline is like having a baby: fun to conceive, but hell to deliver. – C. E. Woolman, principal founder of Delta Air Lines ( The Economist , 2011).

As the quote above suggests, airlines are faced with many challenges. In addition to operating in a strict regulatory environment, airlines yield extremely small profit margins. In 2013 the industry accumulated $10.6 billion worldwide in revenues, although global profit margins were just 1.5% (IATA, 2014a). To put that into perspective, while the average airline earned 1.5%, Apple’s profit margins were almost 14 times that at 20.15% (YCharts, 2014).

Passenger Load Factor

Key to airline profitability is passenger load factor , which relates how efficiently planes are being used. Load factor for a single flight can be determined by dividing the number of passengers by the number of seats.

Passenger load factors in the airline industry reached a record high in 2013, at just under 80%, which was attributed to increased volumes and strong capacity management in key sectors (IATA, 2104a). One way of increasing capacity is by using larger aircraft. For instance, the introduction of the Airbus A380 model has allowed up to 40% more capacity per flight, carrying up to  525 passengers in a three-class configuration, and up to 853 in a single-class configuration (Airbus, 2014). 

Low-Cost Carriers

Another key factor in profitability is the airline’s business model. In 1971, Southwest Airlines became the first low-cost carrier (LCC), revolutionizing the industry. The LCC model involved charging for all extras such as reserved seating, baggage, and on-board service, and cutting costs by offering less legroom and using non-unionized workforces. Typically, an LCC has to run with  90% full planes to break even (Owram, 2014). The high-volume, lower-service system is what we have become used to today, but at the time it was introduced, it was groundbreaking.

Ancillary Revenues

The LCC model, combined with tight margins, led to today’s climate where passengers are charged for value-added services such as meals, headsets, blankets, seat selection, and bag checking. These are known in the industry as ancillary revenues . Profits from these extras rose from $36 billion in 2012 to $42 billion in 2013, or more than $13 a passenger. An average net profit of only $3.39 per passenger was retained by airlines (IATA, 2014a).

As you can see, airlines must strive to maintain profitability, despite thin margins, in an environment with heavy government regulation. But at the same time, they must be responsible for the safety of their passengers.

Air Safety and Security

IATA encourages airlines to view safety from a number of points, including reducing operational risks such as plane crashes, by running safety audit programs. They also advocate for improved infrastructure such as runway upgrades and training for pilots and other crew. Finally, they strive to understand emerging safety issues, including the outsourcing of operations to third-party companies (IATA, 2014a).

In terms of security, coordination between programs such as the Interpol Stolen and Lost Travel Documents initiative and other databases is critical (IATA, 2014a). As reservations and management systems become increasingly computerized, cyber-security becomes a top concern for airlines, who must protect IT (information technology) because their databases contain information about flights and passengers’ personal information. Unruly passengers are also a cause of concern, with over 8,000 incidents reported worldwide every year (IATA, 2014a).

Now that we have a better sense of the complexities of the industry, let’s take a closer look at air travel in Canada and the regional air industry.

Canada’s Air Industry

In 1937, Trans-Canada Air Lines (later to become Air Canada) was launched with two passenger planes and one mail plane. By the 1950s,   Canadian Pacific Airlines (CP Air) entered the marketplace, and an economic boom led to more affordable tickets. Around this time CP Air (which became Canadian Airlines in 1987) launched flights to Australia, Japan, and South America (Canadian Geographic, 2000). In 2001, Canadian Airlines International was acquired by Air Canada (Aviation Safety Network, 2012).

In 1996, the marketplace changed drastically with the entry of an Alberta-based LCC called WestJet.  By 2014, WestJet had grown to become Canada’s second major airline with more than 9,700 staff flying to 88 destinations across domestic and international networks (WestJet, 2014).

As it grew, WestJet began to offer services such as premium economy class and a frequent-flyer program, launched a regional carrier, and introduced transatlantic flights with service to Dublin, Ireland, evolving away from the LCC model (Owram, 2014). With those changes, and in the absence of  a true low-cost carrier, in 2014, some other companies, such as Canada Jetlines and JetNaked, sought to raise upward of $50 million to bring their airlines to market.

However, outside of Air Canada and WestJet, airlines in Canada have found it very challenging to survive, and some examples of LCC startups like Harmony Airways and Jetsgo have fallen by the wayside.

Challenges to Canada’s Air Industry

When looking at these failed airlines in Canada, three key challenges to success can be identified (Owram, 2014):

• Canada’s large geographical size and sparse population mean relatively low demand for flights.
• Canada’s higher taxes and fees compared with other jurisdictions (such as the United States) make pricing less competitive.
• Canada’s two dominant airlines are able to price new entrants out of the market.

In addition to these factors, the European debt crisis, a slow US economic recovery, more cautious spending by Canadians, and fuel price increases led to a $900 million industry loss in 2011 (Conference Board of Canada, 2012) prior to the industry returning to profitability in 2013.

Take a Closer Look: One Size Doesn’t Fit All

In 2013, a special report to the Canadian Senate explored the concept that one size doesn’t fit all when it comes to competitiveness in the country’s airline industry. The report contains general observations about the industry as well as a number of recommendations to stakeholders, including airport managers. Read the report: “One Size Doesn’t Fit All: the Future Growth and Competitiveness of Canadian Air Travel” [PDF] : www.parl.gc.ca/Content/SEN/Committee/411/trcm/rep/rep08apr13-e.pdf

Today, the Canadian airline industry directly employs roughly 141,000 people and is worth $34.9 billion in gross domestic product. It supports 330 jobs for every 100,000 passengers and contributes over $12 billion to federal and provincial treasuries, including over $7 billion in taxes (Gill and Raynor, 2013).

Let’s now turn our attention to the regional air market, focusing on British Columbia.

Regional Airlines

Transportation in BC has always been difficult: incomplete road systems and rugged terrain historically made travel between communities almost impossible. In 1927, a number of businessmen promised to change all that when they opened British Columbia Airways in Victoria with the purchase of a commercial airliner (Canadian Museum of Flight, 2014).

As commercial flying became more popular, and the province grew, regional airports started to spring up around BC as a means of delivering surveying equipment, forestry supplies, and workers. Many of these airports were legacies of Canada’s strategic position for the military. Fort Nelson’s airport, for instance, was established so the US Air Force could fuel aircraft bound for Russia in World War II (Northern Rockies Regional Airport, 2014).

In 1994, Transport Canada transferred all 150 airports under its control to local authorities under the National Airports Policy (NAP). This policy is considered to have been a turning point in the privatization of the airline industry in Canada. A 2004 study showed that after 10 years, 48% of these airports were not able to cover annual costs of operation, leading to concerns about the viability of small local airports in particular (InterVISTAS, 2005).

In 2012, the BC government released its aviation strategy, entitled Connecting with the World , which acknowledged the economic challenges for airports large and small. These range from Vancouver International Airport (YVR), which supports more than 61,000 jobs and creates more than $11 billion in economic activity each year, through to regional and local airports. The strategy outlined a framework to remove barriers to aviation growth including potentially eliminating the two-cent-per-litre International Aviation Fuel Tax ( British Columbia Ministry of Transportation and Infrastructure , 2012).

Given a highly complex regulatory environment, razor-thin profit margins, and intense competition, the airline industry is constantly changing and evolving at global, national, and regional levels. But one thing is certain: air travel is here to stay.

On the other hand, the rail industry has been faced with significant declines since air travel became accessible to the masses. Let’s learn more about this sector.

In Chapter 1, we looked at the historic significance of railways as they laid the foundation for the modern tourism industry. That’s because in many places, including Canada and British Columbia, trains were an unprecedented way to move people across vast expanses of land. With the Canadian Pacific company opening up hotels in major cities, BC’s hospitality sector was born and a golden age of rail travel emerged.

However, starting in the 1940s and 1950s, the passenger rail industry began to decline sharply. In 1945, Canadian railways carried 55.4 million passengers, but just 10 years later passenger traffic had dropped to 27.2 million. The creation of VIA Rail in 1977 as a Canadian Crown corporation was an attempt by the government to ensure rail travel did not disappear, but in the years since its founding VIA has struggled, relying heavily on federal subsidies in order to continue operations.

Between 1989 and 1990, VIA lost over 45% of its ridership when it cut unprofitable routes, focusing on areas with better potential for revenue and passenger volumes. From there, annual ridership has stabilized at around 3.5 million to 4.0 million passengers per year, slowly increasing throughout the 1990s and 2000s (Dupuis, 2011).

Despite this slight recovery, there are a number of challenges for passenger rail in Canada, which will likely require continued government support to survive. Three key challenges to a successful passenger rail industry are:

• Passenger rail must negotiate with freight for right-of-use of tracks.
• There is limited potential of routes (with the highest volume existing in the Quebec-Windsor corridor).
• Fixed-cost equipment is aging out, requiring replacement or upgrading.

High-speed rail seems like an attractive option, but would be expensive to construct as existing tracks aren’t suitable for the reasons given above. It’s also unlikely to provide high enough returns to private investors (Dupuis, 2011). This means the Canadian government would have to invest heavily in a rapid rail project for it to proceed. As of 2014, no such investment was planned.

Spotlight On: Rocky Mountaineer Rail Tours

Founded in 1990, Rocky Mountaineer offers three train journeys through BC and Alberta to Banff, Lake Louise, Jasper, and Calgary, and one train excursion from Vancouver to Whistler. In 2013, Rocky Mountaineer introduced Coastal Passage, a new route connecting Seattle to the Canadian Rockies that can be added to any two-day or more rail journey (Rocky Mountaineer, 2014). For more information, please visit the Rocky Mountaineer website : http://www.rockymountaineer.com

While the industry overall has been in a decline, touring companies like Rocky Mountaineer have found a financially successful model by shifting the focus from transportation to the sightseeing experience. The company has weathered financial storms by refusing to discount their luxury product, instead focusing on the unique experiences. The long planning cycle for scenic rail packages has helped the company stand their ground in terms of pricing (Cubbon, 2010).

Rail Safety

In Canada, rail safety is governed by the Railway Safety Act , which ensures safe railway operation and amends other laws that relate to rail safety (Government of Canada, 2014b). The Act is overseen by the Minister of Transport. It covers grade crossings, mining and construction near railways, operating certifications, financial penalties for infractions, and safety management.

The Act was revised in late 2014 in response to the massive rail accident in July 2013 in Lac-Mégantic, Quebec. A runaway oil train exploded, killing 47 people, and subsequently MM&A Railway and three employees, including the train’s engineer, were charged with criminal negligence (CBC News, 2014).

In addition to freight management issues, a key rail safety concern is that of crossings. As recently as April 2014, Transport Canada had to issue orders for improved safety measures at crossings in suburban Ottawa after a signal malfunctioned in the area (CTV News, 2014a). According to Operation Lifesaver Canada (2014), in 2011, there were 169 crossing collisions across Canada, with 25 fatalities and 21 serious injuries. In general, however, Canada’s 73,000 kilometres of railway tracks safely transport both people and goods. And while railways in Canada, and elsewhere, are being forced to innovate, companies like Rocky Mountaineer (see Spotlight On above) give the industry glimmers of hope.

The rail industry shares some common history with the cruise sector. Let’s now turn our focus to the water and learn about the evolution of travel on the high seas.

Travel by water is as old as civilization itself. However, the industry as we know it began when Thomas Newcomen invented the steam engine in 1712. The first crossing of the Atlantic by steam engine took place in 1819 aboard the SS Savannah , landing in Liverpool, England, after 29 days at sea. Forty years later, White Star Lines began building ocean liners including the  Olympic -class ships (the Olympic, Britannic , and Titanic ), expanding on previously utilitarian models by adding luxurious amenities (Briggs, 2008).

A boom in passenger ship travel toward the end of the 1800s was aided by a growing influx of immigrants from Europe to America, while more affluent passengers travelled by steamship for pleasure or business. The industry grew over time but, like rail travel, began to decline after the arrival of airlines. Shipping companies were forced to change their business model from pure transportation to “an experience,” and the modern cruise industry was born.

The Cruise Sector

We’ve come a long way since the Olympic class of steamship. Today, the  world’s largest cruise ship, MS  Oasis of the Seas , has an outdoor park with 12,000 plants, an 82-foot zip wire, and a high-diving performance venue. It’s 20 storeys tall and can hold 5,400 passengers and a crew of up to 2,394 (Magrath, 2014).  A crew on a cruise ship will include the captain, the chief officer (in charge of training and maintenance), staff captain, chief engineer, chief medical officer, and chief radio officer (communication, radar, and weather monitoring).

Spotlight On: Cruise Lines International Association

Cruise Lines International Association (CLIA) is the world’s largest cruise industry trade association with representation in North and South America, Europe, Asia, and Australasia. CLIA represents the interests of cruise lines and travel agents in the development of policy. CLIA is also engaged in travel agent training, research, and marketing communications (CLIA, 2014). For more information on CLIA, the cruise industry, and member cruise lines and travel agencies, visit the Cruise Lines International Association website : www.cruising.org

Cruising the World

According to CLIA, 21.7 million passengers were expected to travel worldwide on 63 member lines in 2014. Given increased demand, 24 new ships were expected in 2014-15, adding a total capacity of over 37,000 passengers.

Over 55% of the world’s cruise passengers are from North America, and the leading destinations (based on ship deployments), according to CLIA, are:

• The Caribbean (37%)
• The Mediterranean (19%)
• Northern Europe (11%)
• Australia/New Zealand (6%)
• Alaska (5%)
• South America (3%)

River Cruising

While mass cruises to destinations like the Caribbean remain incredibly popular, river cruises are emerging as another strong segment of the industry. The key differences between river cruises and ocean cruises are (Hill, 2013):

• River cruise ships are smaller (400 feet long by 40 feet wide on average) and can navigate narrow passages.
• River cruises carry fewer passengers (about 10% of the average cruise, or 200 passengers total).
• Beer, wine, and high-end cuisine are generally offered in the standard package.

The price point for river cruises is around the same as ocean trips, with the typical cost ranging from $2,000 to $4,000, depending on the itinerary, accommodations, and other amenities.

From 2008 to 2013, river cruises saw a 10% annual passenger increase. Europe leads the subcategory, while emerging destinations include a cruise route along China’s Yangtze River. As the on-board experience differs greatly from a larger cruise (no play areas, water parks, or on-board stage productions), the target demographic for river cruises is 50- to 70-year-olds. According to Torstein Hagen, founder and chairman of Viking, an international river cruising company, “with river cruises, a destination is the destination,” although many river cruises are themed around cultural or historical events (Hill, 2013).

Cruising in Canada

According to a study completed for the North West & Canada Cruise Association (NWCCA) and its partners, in 2012, approximately 1,100 cruise ship calls were made at Canadian cruise ports generating slightly more than 2 million passenger arrivals throughout the six-month cruise season (BREA, 2013). The study found three key cruise itineraries in Canada:

• Canada/New England
• Quebec (between Montreal and Quebec City and US ports)
• Alaska (either departing from, or using, Vancouver or another BC city as a port of call)

These generated $1.16 billion in direct spending. Cruising also generated almost 10,000 full- and part-time jobs paying $397 million in wages and salaries. The international cruise industry also generated an estimated $269 million in indirect business and income taxes in Canada, and the majority of this spending was in British Columbia (BREA, 2013).

Cruising BC

BC’s rail history and cruise history are intertwined. As early as 1887, Canadian Pacific Railway began offering steamship passage to destinations such as Hawaii, Shanghai, Alaska, and Seattle. Ninety-nine years later, Vancouver’s Canada Place was built, with its cruise ship terminals, allowing the province to attract large ships and capture its share of the growing international cruise industry (Cruise BC, 2014).

Spotlight On: Cruise BC

Cruise BC is a partnership between BC port destinations designed to provide a vehicle for cooperative marketing and development of BC’s cruise sector. Their vision is that the West Coast and British Columbia’s coastal communities are recognized and sought out globally by cruise lines and passengers as a destination of choice. For more information, visit the Cruise BC website : http://www.cruisebc.ca

This potential continues to grow as Nanaimo, Prince Rupert, Victoria, and Vancouver accounted for 57% of the Canadian cruise passenger traffic with 1.18 million passengers in 2012 (BREA, 2013).

Cruising isn’t the only way for visitors to experience the waters of BC. In fact, the vast majority of our water travel is done by ferry. Let’s take a closer look at this vital component of BC’s transportation infrastructure.

Ferry service in British Columbia dates back to the mid-1800s when the Hudson’s Bay Company ran ships between Vancouver Island and the Mainland. Later, CP Rail and Black Ball ferries ran a private service, until 1958 when Premier W.A.C. Bennett announced the BC Ferry Authority would consolidate the ferries under a provincial mandate.

The MV Tsawwassen and the MV Sidney began regular service on June 15, 1960, and BC Ferries was officially launched with two terminals and around 200 employees. Today, there are 35 vessels, 47 destinations, and up to 4,700 employees in the summer peak season (BC Ferries, 2014).

BC isn’t the only destination where ferries make up part of the transportation experience. In 2011, Travel + Leisure Magazine profiled several notable ferry journeys in the article, “World’s Most Beautiful Ferry Rides” including:

• An 800-mile ferry voyage through Chile’s Patagonian fjords
• A three-mile trip from the Egyptian Spice Market to Istanbul, Turkey
• Urban ferry rides including Hong Kong’s Victoria Harbour, Australia’s Sydney Harbour, and New York City’s Staten Island Ferry

The article also featured the 15-hour trip from Port Hardy to Prince Rupert on British Columbia’s coast (Orcutt, 2011).

While cruising is often a pleasant and relaxing experience, there are a number of safety concerns for vessels of all types.

Cruise and Ferry Safety

One of the major concerns on cruise lines is disease outbreak, specifically the norovirus (a stomach flu), which can spread quickly on cruise ships as passengers are so close together. The US Centers for Disease Control (CDC) vessel sanitation program (http://www.cdc.gov/nceh/vsp/default.htm) is designed to help the industry prevent and control the outset, and spreading, of these types of illnesses (Briggs, 2008).

Accidents are also a concern. In 2006, the BC Ferries vessel MV Queen of the North crashed and sank in the Inside Passage, leaving two passengers missing and presumed dead. The ship’s navigating officer was charged with criminal negligence causing their deaths (Keller, 2013). More recently, a “hard landing” at Duke Point terminal on Vancouver Island caused over $4 million in damage. BC Ferries launched a suit against a German engineering firm in late 2013, alleging a piece of equipment failed, making a smooth docking impossible. The Transportation Safety Board found that staff aboard the ship didn’t follow proper docking procedures, however, which contributed to the crash (Canadian Press, 2013).

Spotlight On: The Transportation Safety Board  

The Transportation Safety Board (TSB) investigates marine, pipeline, rail, and air incidents. It is an independent agency that reviews an average of 3,200 events every year. It does not determine liability; however, coroners and medical examiners may use TSB findings in their investigations. The head office in Quebec manages 220 staff across the country. For more information, visit the Transportation Safety Board website : http://www.bst-tsb.gc.ca/eng/index.asp

We’ve covered the skies, the rails, and the seas. Now let’s round out our investigation of transportation in tourism by delving into travel on land.

While much of this text has placed significance on the emergence of the railways as critical to the development of our industry, BC’s roadways have also played an integral role. Our roads have evolved from First Nations trails, to Fur Trade and Gold Rush routes, to Wagon Roads and Trunk Roads — finally becoming the highway system we know today ( British Columbia Ministry of Transportation and Highways , n.d.).

Take a Closer Look: Frontier to Freeway: A Short Illustrated History of the Roads in British Columbia

This short book, available as a PDF, provides an overview of the integral importance of BC’s evolving roadways in our transportation sector. Read this book: Frontier to Freeway: A Short Illustrated History of the Roads in British Columbia [PDF] : http://www.th.gov.bc.ca/publications/frontiertofreeway/frontiertofreeway.pdf

Today, land-based travel is achieved through a complex web of local transit, taxis, rentals, walking, and short-term sightseeing. This section briefly explores these options.

Scenic and Sightseeing Travel

It’s common for visitors to want to explore a community and appreciate the sights. We’ve already learned a little about the rail-based sightseeing company, Rocky Mountaineer. Many destinations also offer short-term, hop-on-hop-off bus and trolley tours. Others feature trams and trolleys. Outside of impromptu excursions, sightseeing tours are often put together by inbound tour operators. You can learn more about tour operators, and the sightseeing sector, in Chapter 7.

Transit and Destination Infrastructure

Vancouver’s Tourism Master Plan acknowledges the importance of transportation infrastructure to the tourism industry. Priorities for future development by the city include (Tourism Vancouver, 2013):

• Improving accessibility for people with disabilities
• Creating a transit loop between downtown attractions
• Supporting ferries in False Creek
• Providing late-night transit
• Investigating and implementing a public bike share
• Developing more transit options along the Broadway corridor
• Working with taxi companies to explore a strategic plan for taxi operations
• Enhancing walkability by implementing recommendations from the Pedestrian Safety Study and Action Plan

These action items were developed in consultation with industry stakeholders as well as residents, and reflect the interrelated elements that make up a destination’s transportation infrastructure.

Rentals and Taxis

Today, when travellers aren’t using their own cars, automobile travel is traditionally split between rental vehicles and taxis (including limousines).

In North America, there are three main brands that represent approximately 85% of the rental car business: Enterprise (includes National and Alamo), Hertz (includes Dollar and Thrifty), and Avis. One of the reasons that brands have consolidated over time is the high fixed cost of operation as vehicles are purchased, maintained, and disposed of. Fierce competition means prices are checked and updated thousands of times a day. The business is also highly seasonal, with high traffic in summer and spring, and so fleet management is critical for profitability. Rental companies tend to use enplanements (the numbers of passengers travelling by air), as a measurement of market trends that influence rental usage (DBRS, 2010).

In BC, taxi licences are issued by the BC Passenger Transportation Board. In Vancouver, the right to operate a taxi is based on a permit system, and each permit costs the original holder $100. But because of the limited number of permits available, those who hold one are able to auction it off for over $800,000 and keep the profit. As a result, passengers in Vancouver paid an average of 73% more for the equivalent trip in Washington, D.C. Drivers from  areas outside the city depositing passengers in Vancouver are also not permitted to pick up fares on the return trip, having to drive across their boundaries (Proctor, 2014).

Ridesharing apps  like Uber, which allow people to find a ride using their mobile phone, have emerged to exert influence on car travel in key destinations. In San Francisco, these apps have rapidly undercut the taxi industry: according to the city’s transit authority, per month, trips by taxi have plummeted from 1,424 in 2012 to 504 in 2014, even though taxi operators maintain a monopoly over rides from the airport (Kuittinen, 2014). In New York City, however, the price of medallions (similar to Vancouver’s taxi permits) continues to hover above $950,000. In large markets like Manhattan, passengers continue to hail cabs on the street in the moment, with e-hails (electronic taxi hails) at 0.17% of the market (Brustein & Winter, 2014). The City of Vancouver opted to force Uber to roll back after its initial release, and in 2014 placed the app on a six-month moratorium after pressure from taxi operators who cited threats to the values of their licences as well as safety and monitoring concerns (CTV News, 2014b).

As this and other examples illustrate, the transportation sector is vulnerable to regulatory, technological, operational, and business trends. Let’s look at these in more detail.

Trends and Issues

This section explores issues directly relating to transportation today including fuel cost, labour, and environmental impacts. For more information on one of the biggest trends in tourism, online travel agencies (OTAs), and how online bookings impact the transportation sector, please see Chapter 7.

When it comes to moving people, fuel cost is critical. The cost of jet fuel is one of the single highest factors in airline profitability. In 2013, the average cost was around $125 per barrel, which was $5 less than the previous year (IATA, 2014a). Cruise ships consume a lower grade of diesel than do land vehicles, but they consume a lot of it. The QE2 , for example, consumes roughly 380 tonnes of fuel every day if travelling at 28.5 knots (Briggs, 2008).

As in all tourism-related sectors, cyclical labour shortages can significantly impact the transportation industry. In the aviation sector, a forecast found that by 2032 the world’s airlines will need 460,000 additional pilots and 650,000 new maintenance technicians to service current and future aircraft. The drive to find employees also extends to the maritime sector, where the International Maritime Organization (IMO) launched a “Go to sea!” campaign to attract more workers to the field (PWC, 2012).

Environmental Impacts

In addition to fuel and labour costs, and regulations we’ve covered already, the transportation sector has a significant impact on the natural environment.

Air Impacts

According to the David Suzuki Foundation (2014), the aviation industry is responsible for 4% to 9% of climate change impacts, and greenhouse gas emissions from flights have risen 83% since 1990. Airline travel has a greater emissions impact than driving or taking the train per passenger kilometre, which caused a bishop in the UK to famously declare that “Making selfish choices such as flying on holiday [is] a symptom of sin” (Barrow, 2006).

Rail Impacts

Rail travel is widely regarded as one of the most environmentally friendly modes of transportation due to its low carbon dioxide emissions. Railways come under fire outside of the tourism realm, however, as freight shipping can produce hazards to resident health including an increased risk of developing cancer and noise pollution (The Impact Project, 2012).

Cruise Impacts

Cruise ships can generate significant pollution from black water (containing human waste), grey water (runoff from showers, dishwashers, sinks), bilge water (from the lowest compartment of the ship), solid waste (trash), and chemical waste (cleaners, solvents, oil). One ship can create almost a million litres of grey water, over 113,000 litres of black water, and over 140,000 litres of bilge water every day. Depending on the regulations in the operating areas, ships can simply dump this waste directly into the ocean. Ballast tanks, filled to keep the ship afloat, can be contaminated with species which are then transported to other areas, disrupting sensitive ecosystems (Briggs, 2008).

Land Impacts

A recent study found that the impact of travel on land is highly dependent on the number of passengers. Whereas travelling alone in a large SUV can have high emissions per person (as high as flying), increasing the number of passengers, and using a smaller vehicle, can bring the impact down to that of train travel ( Science Daily , 2013).

For more information on the environmental impacts of the transportation sector, and how to mitigate these, read Chapter 10.

As you’ve learned, the transportation sector can have an effect on climate change, and changes in weather have a strong effect on transportation. According to Natural Resources Canada (2013), some of these include:

• More drastic freeze-thaw cycles, destroying pavement and causing ruts in asphalt
• Increased precipitation causing landslides, washing out roads, and derailing trains
• Effects and costs of additional de-icing chemicals deployed on aircraft and runways (over 50 million litres were used worldwide in 2013)
• Delayed flights and sailings due to increased storm activity
• Millions of dollars of infrastructure upgrades required as sea levels increase and flood structures (replacing or relocating bridges, tunnels, ports, docks, dykes, helipads and airports)

The threat of climate change could significantly impact sea-level airports such as YVR, and some 50 additional registered airports across Canada that sit at five metres or less above sea level (Natural Resources Canada, 2013).

For this reason, it’s important that the sector continue to press for innovations and greener transportation choices, if only to ensure future financial costs are kept at bay.

Tourism, freight, and resource industries such as forestry and mining sometimes compete for highways, waterways, and airways.  It’s important for governments to engage with various stakeholders and attempt to juggle various economic priorities — and for tourism to be at the table during these discussions.

That’s why in 2015 the BC Ministry of Transportation released its 10-year plan, BC on the Move . Groups like the Tourism Industry Association of BC actively polled their members in order to have their concerns incorporated into the plan. These included highway signage and wayfaring, the future of BC Ferries, and urban infrastructure improvements.

You can view the plan by visiting  http://engage.gov.bc.ca/transportationplan/

This chapter has taken a brief look at one of the most complex, and vital, components of our industry. Chapter 3 covers accommodations and is just as essential.

• Ancillary revenues: money earned on non-essential components of the transportation experience including headsets, blankets, and meals
• Blue Sky Policy: Canada’s approach to open skies agreements that govern which countries’ airlines are allowed to fly to, and from, Canadian destinations
• Cruise BC: a multi-stakeholder organization responsible for the development and marketing of British Columbia as a cruise destination
• Cruise Lines International Association (CLIA): the world’s largest cruise industry trade association with representation in North and South America, Europe, Asia, and Australasia
• International Air Transport Association (IATA) : the trade association for the world’s airlines
• Low-cost carrier (LCC): an airline that competes on price, cutting amenities and striving for volume to achieve a profit
• National Airports Policy (NAP): the 1994 policy that saw transfer of 150 airports from federal control to communities and other local agencies, essentially deregulating the industry
• Open skies: a set of policies that enable commercial airlines to fly in and out of other countries
• Passenger load factor: a way of measuring how efficiently a transportation company uses its vehicles on any given day, calculated for a single flight by dividing the number of passengers by the number of seats
• Railway Safety Act: a 1985 Act to ensure the safe operation of railways in Canada
• Ridesharing apps: applications for mobile devices that allow users to share rides with strangers, undercutting the taxi industry
• Transportation Safety Board (TSB): the national independent agency that investigates an average of 3,200 transportation safety incidents across the country every year
• When did the first paid air passenger take flight? What would you say have been the three biggest milestones in commercial aviation since that date?
• If a flight with 500 available seats carries 300 passengers, what is the passenger load factor?
• Why is it difficult for new airlines to take off in Canada?
• How did some of BC’s regional airports come into existence? What are some of the challenges they face today?
• How much economic activity is generated by YVR every year?
• What are the key differences between river cruises and ocean cruises? Who are the target markets for these cruises?
• Which cities attract more than 50% of the cruise traffic in Canada?
• What are the priorities for transportation infrastructure development as outlined in Vancouver’s Tourism Master Plan? What other transportation components would you include in your community’s tourism plan?
• What are some of the environmental impacts of the transportation sector? Name three. How might these be lessened?

Case Study: Air North

Founded in 1977 by Joseph Sparling and Tom Wood, Air North is a regional airline providing passenger and cargo service between Yukon and destinations including BC, Alberta, and Alaska. In 2012, Air North surpassed one million passengers carried. Employing over 200 people, the airline is owned in significant part by the Vuntut Development Corporation, the economic arm of the Vuntut Gwitchin First Nation (VGFN). In fact, one in 15 Yukoners owns a stake in the airline (Air North, 2015).

The ownership model has meant that economic returns are not always the priority for shareholders. As stated on its website, “ the maximization of profit is not the number one priority,” as air service is a “lifeline” to the VGFN community. For this reason, service and pricing of flights is extremely important, as are employment opportunities. 

Visit the corporate information portion of the Air North website and answer the following questions: http://www.flyairnorth.com/Experience/about-air-north.aspx

• What is the number one priority of Air North? How is the company structured to ensure it can meet its goals in this area?
• What does Air North consider to be its competitive advantage? How does this differ from other airlines?
• Describe the investment portfolio of the Vuntut Development Corporation. What types of companies does it own? Why might they have selected these types of initiatives?
• List at least three groups that have a stake in the airline. What are their interests? Where do their interests line up, and where do they compete?
• In your opinion, would this regional airline model work in your community? Why or why not?

Air North. (2015). Corporate information . Retrieved from www.flyairnorth.com/Experience/Corporate.aspx

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Barrow, Becky. (2006, July 23). Flying on holiday ‘a sin’, says bishop.   Daily Mail Online . Retrieved from http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-397228/Flying-holiday-sin-says-bishop.html

BC Ferries. (2014, June 17). BC Ferries proudly celebrates 50 sears of Service . Retrieved from http://www.bcferries.com/about/history/history.html

BREA. (2013, March). The economic contribution of the international cruise industry in Canada 2012 .  Prepared for:  North West & Canada Cruise Association, St. Lawrence Cruise Association, Atlantic Canada Cruise Association, Cruise BC. Exton, PA: Business Research & Economic Advisors, p. 1-5.

Briggs, Josh.  (2008, May 1). How cruise ships work . Retrieved from http://adventure.howstuffworks.com/cruise-ship.htm

British Columbia Ministry of Transportation and Highways. (n.d.). Frontier to freeway: A short illustrated history of the roads in British Columbia. [PDF] Retrieved from http://www.th.gov.bc.ca/publications/frontiertofreeway/frontiertofreeway.pdf

British Columbia Ministry of Transportation and Infrastructure. (2012). Connecting with the world: An aviation strategy for British Columbia [PDF] . Retrieved from http://www.th.gov.bc.ca/airports/documents/2012_AviationStrategy.pdf

Brustein, Joshua and Caroline Winter. (2014, February 28). If Uber is killing taxis, what explains the million-dollar medallions.   Business Week . Retrieved from http://www.businessweek.com/articles/2014-02-28/if-uber-is-killing-taxis-what-explains-new-yorks-million-dollar-medallions

Canadian Geographic . (September/October 2000). Canadian aviation history.  Retrieved from http://www.canadiangeographic.ca/magazine/so00/aviation_history.asp

Canadian Museum of Flight. (2014). The history of flight in BC . Retrieved from http://www.canadianflight.org/content/history-flight-bc-0

Canadian Press. (2013, December 12). BC Ferries crash lawsuit targets electronics firm.   Huffpost British Columbia . Retrieved from http://www.huffingtonpost.ca/2013/12/22/bc-ferries-crash-lawsuit_n_4490818.html

CBC News. (2014, May 12.) MM&A Railway faces charges in Lac-Megantic disaster – Montreal – CBC News . Retrieved from http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/montreal/mm-a-railway-faces-charges-in-lac-mégantic-disaster-1.2640654

CLIA. (2014, January 16). The state of the cruise industry in 2014: Global growth in passenger numbers and product offerings . Retrieved from http://www.cruising.org/regulatory/news/press_releases/2014/01/state-cruise-industry-2014-global-growth-passenger-numbers-and-product-o

Conference Board of Canada. (2012, September 13). Canada’s airlines hoping to return to the black in 2013. Retrieved from http://www.conferenceboard.ca/press/newsrelease/12-09-14/canada_s_airlines_hoping_to_return_to_the_black_in_2013.aspx

Cruise BC. (2014). Cruise BC, Canada – Cruise executives . Retrieved from http://www.cruisebc.ca/index.php?page=5

CTV News. (2014a).  Feds order Via Rail to address ‘safety’ issues at 6 Ottawa railway crossings . Retrieved from http://www.ctvnews.ca/business/feds-order-via-rail-to-address-safety-issues-at-6-ottawa-railway-crossings-1.1771156

CTV News. (2014b, October 1). Vancouver delays Uber, new cabs for six months. Retrieved from http://bc.ctvnews.ca/vancouver-delays-uber-new-cabs-for-six-months-1.2034892

Cubbon, Paul. (2010, October 22). Rocky economy can’t derail train company. The Globe and Mail. Retrieved from http://www.theglobeandmail.com/report-on-business/small-business/rocky-economy-cant-derail-train-company/article1241050/

David Suzuki Foundation. (2014). Air travel and climate change. Retrieved from http://www.davidsuzuki.org/issues/climate-change/science/climate-change-basics/air-travel-and-climate-change/

DBRS. (2010, May). Rating Canadian rental car securitizations . Retrieved from http://www.dbrs.com/research/232631

Dupuis, Jean. (2011, November 16). VIA Rail Canada Inc. and the future of passenger rail in Canada . Ottawa, ON: Library of Parliament. Retrieved from http://www.parl.gc.ca/Content/LOP/ResearchPublications/2011-93-e.htm#a8

Economist, The . (2011, December 22). Business quotations: Our favourite air lines . Retrieved from http://www.economist.com/blogs/gulliver/2011/12/business-quotations

Gill, Vijay and  R. Neil Raynor. (2013, September).  Growing Canada’s economy: A new national air transportation policy . Ottawa, ON: Conference Board of Canada, p. i -4. 

Government of Canada. (2014a, June 5). The Blue Sky Policy: Made in Canada, for Canada – Transport Canada . Retrieved from http://www.tc.gc.ca/eng/policy/air-bluesky-menu-2989.htm

Government of Canada. (2014b, September 3). Railway Safety Act (1985, c. 32 (4th Supp.)) – Transport Canada . Retrieved from https://www.tc.gc.ca/eng/acts-regulations/acts-1985s4-32.htm

Hermiston, Sandra and Lynda Steele (2014, August 5). Why it costs so much more to fly in Canada. CTV Vancouver News . Retrieved from http://bc.ctvnews.ca/why-it-costs-so-much-more-to-fly-in-canada-1.1733387

Hill, Catey. (2013, February 1). W hat’s behind the river-cruise boom.   Marketwatch . Retrieved from http://www.marketwatch.com/story/whats-behind-the-river-cruise-boom-2013-02-01

IATA. (2014a, June). IATA annual review 2014. Retrieved from http://www.iata.org/2014-review/reader.html?r=29/569#

IATA. (2014b). IATA-About us. Retrieved from http://www.iata.org/about/pages/index.aspx

Impact Project. (2012, January 20). Tracking harm: Health and environmental impacts of rail yards.  The Impact Project Policy Brief Series. [PDF] Retrieved from http://hydra.usc.edu/scehsc/pdfs/Rail%20issue%20brief.%20January%202012.pdf

InterVISTAS. (2005, April). BC regional airports: A policy guide to viability . [PDF] Prepared for AIM/Council of Tourism Associations, Vancouver, BC. Retrieved from http://www.intervistas.com/downloads/BC_Regional_Airports.pdf

Keller, James. (2013, April 22). Karl Lilgert, Queen of the North officer, explains how ferry crashed.   Huffpost British Columbia . Retrieved from http://www.huffingtonpost.ca/2013/04/22/karl-lilgert-queen-of-the-north_n_3134177.html

Kuittinen, Tero. (2014, September 19). Mobile apps are absolutely murdering San Francisco’s taxi industry. BGR . Retrieved from http://bgr.com/2014/09/19/uber-vs-lyft-vs-taxis/

Magrath, A. (2014, October 15). Longer than the shard and wider than a Boeing 747 wingspan: The world’s largest cruise ship sails into the UK for the first time.   Mail Online . Retrieved from http://www.dailymail.co.uk/travel/travel_news/article-2793859/oasis-seas-world-s-largest-cruise-ship-sails-uk-time.html

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Attributions

Figure 2.1  Sky Jet   by Jez  is used under a  CC-BY-NC-ND 2.0  license.

Figure 2.2  Airbus 380-800  by Ponte112  is used under a  CC-BY-NC-SA 2.0  license.

Figure 2.3  airplane 036   by MamaMia05  is used under a  CC-BY 2.0  license.

Figure 2.4  C.P.R. Mount Stephen House, Field, BC, 1909   by Musee McCord Museum has  No known copyright restrictions .

Figure 2.5  Sunset Cruise   by Evan Leeson  is used under a  CC-BY-NC-SA 2.0  license.

Figure 2.6  Uniworld River Cruises River Beatrice in Passau Germany   by Gary Bembridge  is used under a  CC-BY 2.0  license.

Figure 2.7   BC Ferry   by David Lewis  is used under a  CC-BY-NC-ND 2.0  license.

Figure 2.8 Lincoln Town Car   by Nathan  is used under a  CC-BY-NC-ND 2.0  license.

Figure 2.9  Baltimore Airport   by Lee Ruk  is used under a  CC-BY-SA 2.0  license.

Introduction to Tourism and Hospitality in BC Copyright © 2015 by Morgan Westcott is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Sustainable Transport and Tourism Destinations: Volume 13

Table of contents

Introduction.

The relationship between transport and tourism is very complex to analyze due to mutual causality. Nonetheless, it is worthwhile investigating it, especially paying attention to sustainable mobility, due to the need to minimize the externalities of transport, which can otherwise reduce the attractiveness of a tourism destination. To this aim, after a brief overview of different analytical frameworks, this chapter focuses on transport at destination and sustainable mobility options, such as local public transport (PT) and active modes (walking and cycling). In particular, it provides some insights from the literature about both tourists’ mobility patterns — by taking into account both psychological aspects of tourism experience and the localization of the amenities — and specific modal choices, more focused on the impact of transport on the environment. It then concludes by presenting short summaries of each chapter of the book, in order to provide an overview of the investigated topics, which are dealing with both geographical (islands, coastal areas, natural areas) and management/administration (technical solutions, PT provision, transport demand) issues.

Changes of Transport in Cross-Border Tourist Regions in the Polish–Slovak Borderland: An (Un)Sustainable Development?

The Polish–Slovak borderland is a mountainous area with extraordinary natural conditions for tourism development. The main aim of this chapter is to analyze theoretical aspects of a relationship between transport and tourism and to assess selected changes in cross-border transport that have influenced tourism in Polish–Slovak tourism regions. We have tried to answer the questions on changes in transport infrastructure (based on the analysis of the cross-border projects) and public transport (based on the analysis of timetables of the cross-border public transport connections) in the borderland during the last 30 years and to answer the question whether these changes are in accordance with the sustainable development goals. The Polish–Slovak border is seen as a barrier to transport. The increasing cross-border movement of people and goods through Polish–Slovak border after 1989 required the opening of new border crossings and the construction of new cross-border transport infrastructure. Investments to the road infrastructure have led to using of individual automobile transport. Public transport is currently of marginal importance in cross-border transport. The three cross-border rail lines are in poor technical condition, and plans for their modernization are uncertain. Bus transport has been limited on two tourist-oriented lines in the central part of the borderland. In terms of the structure of the use of means of transport, therefore, no change in trends should be expected and most of the incoming people will continue to cross the Polish–Slovak border by their own means of communication. What is worrying, in the future, in the absence of modernization of the railway infrastructure and no organizational measures, there will be a further decline in the importance of public transport in relation to individual road transport.

Tourist Sustainable Mobility at the Destination. A Case Study of a Polish Conurbation

Much attention has of late been paid to the issue of tourist sustainable ­mobility at the destination. This issue takes on particular significance in big cities, which, prior to the outbreak of the pandemic, saw considerable increases in visitor numbers. The aim of this chapter, which draws on the case study method, is to explore the question of how foreign tourists move around in a Polish conurbation, known as Tri-city. Made up of three cities – Gdansk, Sopot, and Gdynia – it is one of Poland’s most popular tourist destinations. Crucially, in Tri-city all major tourist attractions and facilities are dispersed over a wide area, which makes it particularly well suited to researching visitor mobility patterns. The case study that forms the core of this chapter relies mainly on a paper-and-pencil questionnaire survey conducted among foreign tourists visiting Tri-city in January 2020 as well as on direct observation of reality. It turned out that walking was a preferred way of moving around Tri-city for most foreigners. The findings indicate, too, that young female visitors used public transport more often than older women and all men regardless of age. Furthermore, tourists with a university education more often opted for public transport than those without a degree, and visitors who lived in urban areas used public transport more often than those living in the countryside. The chapter concludes by ­summarizing the argument and drawing practical lessons for municipal authorities interested in facilitating tourist sustainability in their cities.

Walking and Sustainable Tourism: “Streetsadvisor.” A Stated Preference GIS-Based Methodology for Estimating Tourist Walking Satisfaction in Rome

This chapter proposes a methodology to develop a tool aimed at helping tourists moving sustainably in Rome, focusing on the “last mile” of their transport experience, that is, walking trips. The methodology consists of the development of a stated preference survey, where tourists’ preferences are elicited with respect to alternative configurations of walking paths. This is performed by taking into consideration path accessibility, interference with other modes of transport, and thermal comfort aspects. Besides, georeferenced data are collected and systematized with the overall aim to create a geographical information system of the first municipality of Rome with useful information to evaluate the status of the walking network. The results of the analysis help to understand the relevant factors affecting tourists’ walking behavior. Additionally, the chapter provides the preliminary considerations needed for the definition of a “tourist walking satisfaction indicator” related to their walking experience with two aims: first, it provides useful information for policy-makers on how to design and manage walking networks; second, it provides a framework for a tourist traveler information system (a “StreetsAdvisor”) that can guide them in the city on the base of their heterogeneous preferences.

Environmental Sustainability of City Sightseeing Cruises: A Case Study on Battery-Powered Electric Boats in Berlin, Germany

With continued growth in tourism, demand for guided local excursions, sightseeing, and entertainment has increased rapidly, particularly in European tourist destinations cities. Many touristic sights can often be viewed best from the water. Operators offer a variety of sightseeing cruises on motor barges along rivers, canals, lakefronts, or ports. In many tourist destination cities and around urban heritage sites, however, increasing boat traffic and the associated air pollution from diesel-powered engines have become a local environmental concern. Based on complaints from residents and visitors, several cities have already announced plans for (mandatory) tourist boat emission reductions. Today, electric mobility offers alternative options for safely and conveniently powering commercial tourist boats, that may contribute to mutually beneficial solutions for local operators, tourist visitors, and residents alike. However, the technology is still expensive and new businesses may also face considerable challenges when entering established local competitive tourism markets. Focusing on the local waterways of the city of Berlin, Germany, the authors have conducted a local case study, including interviews with several operators of (electric) tour boats, as well as an initial empirical survey of their tourist customers. The authors point out the viewpoints of the various stakeholders, identify opportunities, discuss constraints, and offer policy recommendations with a view to enhance the sustainability of waterborne transport in tourist destination cities.

Sustainable Tourism Mobility in Malta: Encouraging a Shift in Tourist Travel Behavior Through an Innovative Smartphone App for Trip Planning

Malta has long been a tourist destination with visitors totaling 2.6 million in 2018. A 2013 survey by the Malta Tourism Authority found that 22% of tourists opted for a rental car during their stay, whereas 76% chose public transport to meet their travel needs. In recent years, the modernization of the bus fleet, improved information provision, and the introduction of a ferry service in the Valletta harbors, have contributed to the increased appeal of public transport. However, the increase in independent tourists might give rise to an increase in the rentals of individual cars. This is a concern given Malta’s high car ownership, and its ever-increasing congestion problem. As part of the CIVITAS DESTINATIONS Project, focused on tourist sustainable mobility, the University of Malta developed a Tourist Mobility smartphone application: MyMaltaPlan. The app enables tourists to plan trips and schedule itineraries between touristic sites. The app, which was launched in the summer of 2019, aims to encourage a shift toward greener travel behavior. A survey was conducted with tourists to understand current tourist travel behavior, and tourists’ use of smartphone or web applications for trip planning. The vast majority of visitors own a smartphone and use it on holiday to plan, access, or book transport. To test the app’s functionalities, a focus group was held with a group of volunteers who shared their experiences in a group discussion. Participants appreciated the automatically created itinerary but noted that to truly promote sustainable mobility, the app should be able to provide the full picture of available alternatives.

Tourists, Residents, and Sustainable Mobility in Islands: The Case of Ischia (Italy)

While tourism is mostly considered a crucial driver for local development, its impact in terms of sustainability and attractiveness of local destinations must also be taken into account. This is especially true for small islands, where tourism may determine detrimental effects in the long term to the limited space and resources. The “sustainable tourism” approach considers this phenomenon and proposes possible solutions to problems such as the loss of public space, waste management, energy and water over-consumption, traffic congestion, air, water, and visual pollution. This chapter presents and discusses the results of a survey that has been carried out in Ischia, a small Mediterranean island located in the Gulf of Naples in order to explore the propensity toward sustainable mobility of both tourists and residents. In particular, the mobility patterns of the respondents have been deeply investigated both at home (domestic behavior) and on holiday (tourist behavior). The results suggest that the promotion of a higher level of cooperation among different stakeholders and local governments is of paramount importance in order to achieve sustainable tourism on islands. This may also generate important effects in terms of destination attractiveness.

Sources of Data to Tackle the Challenges of Public Transport Provision in Seasonal Tourist Destinations

Tourism reconfigures the metropolitan dynamics and the patterns of use of the urban systems. The seasonal nature of tourism produces an impact on the urban hierarchies, since it affects the labor, residential, and recreational markets. As a result, people move to and in the destination and it challenges the supply of sustainable modes of transport such as public transport. This research is set within the context of three demanding challenges that tourist destinations need to face-up: to increase environmental sustainability, to enhance destination competitiveness, and finally to assure quality and comfort of public transport services for the local resident population. Camp de Tarragona region, where Costa Daurada (one of the most important Spanish tourist brands) is located, is analyzed to illustrate how different data sources can aid to confront the aforementioned challenges. Given that seasonality is a dynamic phenomenon, suitable data should be flexible in terms of its time framework. To this end data from smart travel cards provided by the consortium that manages the public transport system in the region has been analyzed. Data unveiled the impact of seasonality on the evolution of demand throughout the year, the type of transport tickets used, or changes occurred in the geographical distribution of the mobility Alternative data sources such as surveys and passive mobile positioning data have also been examined, and their pros and cons have been addressed.

Validity of Repeated Applications of TDM Measures Toward Sustainable Development in Tourism Destinations: A Case Study on Managing Peak Hourly Congested Traffic After the Formula 1 World Championship Japanese Grand Prix at Suzuka

The Formula 1 World Championship Japanese Grand Prix (denoted SUZUKA F1) has been held in Suzuka city in the Mie Prefecture of Japan every year since 2009. This event gathers a large number of motor racing fans around the circuit. The total number of attendees over three days amounts to more than 200,000. Reducing the traffic congestion around expressway interchanges (ICs) and decreasing the departure times of return traffic during peak hours are of critical importance not only for short-term transportation demand management (TDM) measures but also for sustainable development ­management in Suzuka city as a tourism destination. The chapter starts a brief review of previous studies on the TDM measures to identify the current trends in both their methodological and problem-oriented approaches and then introduces our approach called the area marketing and management approach (AMMA) relating to an issue on how we can pursue the sustainable development in tourism destinations. Based on the concept of the AMMA, a set of the Smart TDM measures are proposed involving the development of the application software that will be used as an interactive communication tool. The validity of the repeated applications of the Smart TDM measures is empirically examined by assessing the most recent experiences at the SUZUKA F1 until 2017. The limitations to what the current Smart TDM measures can do are finally discussed to improve the smartness of these TDM measures to contribute to the sustainable area development.

Cycle Tourism as a Driver for a Sustainable Local Development. The Case of a Natural Tourist Destination in a North-Western Area of Italy

Cycle tourism is considered as a trendy opportunity of local development that should be taken into consideration by several destinations to (further) increase tourism according to the sustainable development approach. It is a broad and complex phenomenon that involves various social and economic actors. Cycle tourists are looking for new and deep experiences to better benefit from the local identities and the uniqueness of the landscape of a territory. Cycle tourism gives sustainable access to environmental and cultural resources of territories often neglected. Despite its evident potentialities, the lack of studies represents a drawback that could compromise the local development. The aim of this chapter is first to describe the characteristics of this form of tourism both in terms of its contribution to the sustainable development and of demand and supply features. Second, the study focuses on an Italian area that is strongly investing in the development of this form of mobility: an area called “Insubria,” which is located in the Lombardy region, near the Swiss border and includes, as main cities, Varese and Como. The work explores whether the supply of the tourism product in this area is aligned with the current and future demand trends of cycling and tourism. The analysis ends with some suggestions about possible improvements in the area and for the long-term industry competitiveness.

Proposals for Sustainable Transport in Natural Areas: A Case Study of Teide National Park

The exponential growth in the number of visitors and the mass-tourism mobility patterns in natural areas are causing serious issues such as traffic congestion, crowding in car parks, pollution, high noise levels, and traffic accidents. In order to redress this situation, demand management policies that propose more sustainable transportation systems are crucial. In this chapter, the authors summarize extensive research carried out in Teide National Park (Canary Islands, Spain), the most visited national park in Spain, one of the most visited in the world, and a clear example of a natural area under pressure from mass tourism. The authors present the current situation of the natural site and three scientific contributions based on a survey combining revealed and stated preferences that analyzes visitor preferences with regard to the use of sustainable transportation systems. The first study analyzes visitors’ preferences regarding the implementation of a public bicycle-sharing system. The second study explores visitors’ willingness to pay to reduce the environmental impact of their visit and the potential implementation of a shuttle-bus service. The third study investigates the recreational economic value of the site. The chapter provides useful information for decision-makers who need to address problems associated with the unsustainable visitor mobility and reports results that can be extrapolated to other natural parks with similar characteristics and high inflow of tourists.

Conclusions

This concluding chapter is explicitly comparative in orientation. It analytically draws the similarities and the heterogeneities of the themes, frameworks, and policies introduced and discussed in the previous chapters. It also highlights the new contributions that emerge from the chapters for both scholars and practitioners. The main issues that a conjoint perusal of the various contributions to the book allow to highlight are: (a) the role played by public policies in fostering solutions that aim at increasing the sustainability of transport in tourist destinations; (b) the role of collaboration among stakeholders and of networks for the implementation of sustainable transport policies and strategies; (c) the importance of the availability of information both on the supply side and on the demand side of the tourist market; and (d) the importance of considering the trends of transport demand of tourists.

• Luca Zamparini

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Open Access

Peer-reviewed

Research Article

The contribution of tourism mobility to tourism economic growth in China

Roles Conceptualization, Funding acquisition, Methodology, Resources

Affiliation School of Tourism, Hubei University, Wuhan, Hubei, China

Roles Software, Writing – original draft

Affiliation School of Urban and Regional Science, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China

Roles Data curation, Formal analysis, Writing – review & editing

* E-mail: [email protected]

Affiliation School of Business, Hubei University, Wuhan, Hubei, China

Roles Conceptualization, Investigation, Methodology

Affiliation School of Tourism, Hainan University, Haikou, Hainan, China

• Jun Liu, 
• Mengting Yue, 
• Fan Yu, 

• Published: October 27, 2022
• https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0275605
• Peer Review
• Reader Comments

Mobility is the key factor in promoting tourism economic growth (TEG), and the transportation infrastructure has essential functions for maintaining an orderly flow of tourists. Based on the theory of fluid mechanics, we put forward the indicator of tourism mobility (TM). This study is the first to measure the level of TM in China and analyze the spatiotemporal evolution characteristics of TM. Applying the Exploratory Spatial Data Analysis method, we analyze the global and local spatial correlation characteristics of TM. Moreover, we further estimate the contribution of TM to TEG by econometric models and the LMDI method. The results show that (1) the TM in China has maintained rapid growth for a long time. However, there are differences in the rate of growth in different regions. The TM in each region only showed a significant positive spatial correlation in 2016–2018. The space-time pattern is constantly changing over time. The local spatial autocorrelation results of TM are stable, and various agglomeration states are stably distributed in some provinces. (2) The regression results of the traditional panel data model and spatial panel data model both show that TM has a significant positive effect on TEG. Moreover, TM has a negative spatial spillover effect on neighboring regions. (3) The result from the decomposition of LMDI shows that the overall contribution of TM to TEG is 15.76%. This shows that improving TM is a crucial way to promote the economic growth of tourism.

Citation: Liu J, Yue M, Yu F, Tong Y (2022) The contribution of tourism mobility to tourism economic growth in China. PLoS ONE 17(10): e0275605. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0275605

Editor: Hironori Kato, The University of Tokyo, JAPAN

Received: March 3, 2022; Accepted: September 20, 2022; Published: October 27, 2022

Copyright: © 2022 Liu et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Data Availability: The data on RAILWAY, HIGHWAY, ROAD1, ROAD2, ROAD, GDP, TERTIARY INDUSTRY, and POPULATION are from the Chinese Nation Bureau of Statistics ( https://data.stats.gov.cn/easyquery.htm?cn=C01 ). The data on TOURISM REVENUE and VISITORS are from the CEIC database ( https://insights.ceicdata.com ). The data on TRAFFIC, TOURISM MOBILITY, RECPTION, INDUSTRY, and STRUCTURE were calculated by the authors. Please see the paper for details.

Funding: This work was supported by grants from National Social Science Foundation of China [grant number 17CJY051].

Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Introduction

In recent years, the tourism industry has maintained rapid development. By 2019, the total number of global tourist trips exceeded 12.3 billion, an increase of 4.6% over the previous year. The total global tourism revenue was US$5.8 trillion, equivalent to 6.7% of global GDP (World Tourism Economy Trends Report [ 1 ]). Tourism has made important contributions to economic growth by increasing employment, improving infrastructure, and accumulating foreign exchange earnings for destinations [ 2 ]. Due to the impact of COVID-19, People’s travel is restricted. The total number of international tourists in 2021 decreased by 72% compared with 2019, and international tourism consumption dropped by nearly half compared with 2019 [ 3 ].

The above facts remind us that mobility has become an essential feature of tourism activities [ 4 , 5 ]. Tourists from origins to destinations result in a series of mobility of information, material, and capital. These mobilities have a great influence on tourist destinations [ 6 – 9 ]. If tourism mobility (TM) stagnates, tourist attractions, reception facilities and transportation facilities built for tourists will be idle. Tourism workers will lose their jobs and tourism economic growth (TEG) will also stagnate. Therefore, studying the impact of TM is necessary and important.

As one of the important tourist destinations in the world, China’s domestic tourism and inbound tourism are developing rapidly. In 2019, the total contribution of China’s tourism industry to GDP reached 10.94 trillion yuan, accounting for 11.05% of the total GDP, exceeding the proportion of international tourism in the global GDP. A total of 28.25 million people were directly employed in tourism, and 51.62 million people were indirectly employed in tourism. The total employment in tourism accounts for 10.31% of the total employed population in the country [ 10 ]. However, due to the impact of COVID-19, the development level of China’s tourism industry has not recovered to the level of 2019. In 2021, the total number of domestic tourists in China was 3.246 billion, which is only 54% of that in 2019, and directly leads to a total tourism revenue of 2.92 trillion yuan, which is only 51% of that in 2019. This shows that TM is more important to China’s tourism industry. Therefore, we decide to focus on the TM in this study and take China as the research sample.

The top priority of this study is to obtain the right measurement of TM. Transportation infrastructure is an important carrier for the exchange of factors in tourism. Existing studies have confirmed that transportation is a key factor in promoting TEG [ 11 – 13 ]. The establishment of the transportation system has an obvious effect on improving the accessibility of tourist destinations and promoting the inflow of the tourist population [ 14 ]. However, most existing studies only take tourist arrivals to characterize TM [ 15 – 21 ]. They ignore that the transportation infrastructure is also an important factor affecting the TEG. Therefore, this study redefines TM, which considers both transport infrastructure and tourist arrivals.

Another important purpose of this study is to explore the effect of TM on TEG. Existing literature analyzes the links between TM and international trade [ 22 , 23 ] or focuses on the relationship between economic growth [ 24 , 25 ]. However, less literature has focused on the relationship between TM and TEG. There are two possible reasons for the lack of attention. First, the positive and significant impact of the tourist arrivals and TEG no longer needs to be verified. It is common sense that the more tourists the destination receive, the higher the tourism income. Second, tourist arrivals, as a single indicator to measure TM, are able to affect the TEG. Our measurement of the TM concludes both transport infrastructure and tourist arrivals in this study. Therefore, we decide to explore the contribution of TM to the TEG based on the new measurement for TM.

We first use econometric methods to test whether there is a significant impact of TM on TEG. Considering the positive impact of transport infrastructure on China’s TEG [ 26 ], we hypothesize that TM has a positive impact on TEG. Previous studies have also shown that the spatial spillover effect of tourism may significantly affect the TEG [ 27 – 29 ]. Therefore, we further apply the spatial Durbin model to test the impact of TM on TEG.

Moreover, we also use the LMDI (Logarithmic Mean Divisia Index) method to further analyze the contribution of TM to TEG in more detail. The LMDI method is often used to study environmental issues such as energy consumption and carbon emissions [ 30 , 31 ]. In the field of tourism research, the LMDI method is mostly used to decompose tourism carbon emissions or energy consumption [ 32 , 33 ]. Few studies are using the LMDI to analyze TEG. Therefore, we further use the LMDI method to decompose TEG into five influencing factors including the tourism mobility effects ( TM ), the cumulative traffic effects ( Traffic ), the effects of the tertiary industry ( Industry ), the structural effects of the tourism industry ( Structure ) and the reception effects ( Reception ), and examine the contribution of TM to TEG.

Different from previous studies, this study makes two contributions to the literature. First, we introduce the related concepts of fluid mechanics to construct the indicator TM. We also consider the superposition effect of tourist arrivals and transportation infrastructure. This deepens the understanding of TM and promotes the integration of interdisciplinary knowledge. Second, we are the first to examine the impact of TM on TEG using econometric models and the LMDI method. This deepens the understanding of the mechanisms that influence TEG. The results of this study also provide a reference for tourism-related policy makers. Regions wishing to develop tourism can achieve TEG by expanding the size of the source market and promoting the construction of transportation infrastructure.

The rest of this study is organized as follows. Section 1 summarizes the relevant literature. Section 2 presents the theoretical framework, methods, and data. Section 3 introduces the spatiotemporal pattern and evolutionary trend of TM. Section 4 analyzes the contribution of TM to TEG from two different perspectives. Section 5 discusses and analyzes the research results. The last section concludes this study.

Literature review

As the core of tourism activities, TM refers to the mobility of tourists from the origin to the destination, and the stay of tourists in the region [ 34 ]. It is often associated with tourism demand and is measured by tourist arrivals [ 35 ]. Since the 1970s, many studies have paid attention to the influencing factors and the spatial structure of TM [ 15 , 16 ]. The existence of regional heterogeneity makes TM affected by many factors, such as infrastructure, income, GDP, and cultural distance [ 17 , 18 , 20 ]. Moreover, it also makes the spatial structure of TM different. Therefore, TM prediction has become one of the research hotspots [ 36 ]. A large body of research has focused on TM forecasting [ 21 ], including using a combination and integration of forecasts, using nonlinear methods for forecasting, and extending existing methods to better model the changing nature of tourism data [ 37 ]. The gravity model is an earlier method used to analyze international TM [ 38 ]. Due to its effectiveness in explaining TM [ 22 ], gravity models are often used to analyze international tourism service trade. Although the use of gravity models to predict bilateral TM still lacks a corresponding theoretical explanation mechanism, empirical evidence supports the applicability and robustness of gravity models for TM [ 23 ]. Existing research focuses on examining the movement patterns and spatial structure of international TM in destinations [ 39 ], such as the transfer of inbound TM within regions and the influencing factors of inbound TM within destinations [ 40 ]. There are still few studies on the overall spatial characteristics of TM within destination countries, and the only literature is mainly based on digital footprints or questionnaire data to analyze the spatial structure of TM [ 41 , 42 ].

Unlike the tourist arrivals indicator, which focuses more on the mobility of people, TM examines a wider range of content, including the mobility of people, the mobility of materials, the mobility of ideas (more intangible thoughts and fantasies), and the mobility of technology [ 8 ]. The early tourist movement focused more on tourist travel decisions and the resulting movement patterns. Lue et al. [ 43 ] summarized five travel patterns of tourists between destinations. Li et al. [ 44 ] revealed the spatial patterns of TM and tourism propensity in the Asia-Pacific region over the past 10 years. McKercher and Lau [ 45 ] took Hong Kong as an example and identified 78 movement patterns and 11 movement styles of TM within the destination. In recent years, with the help of technologies such as GPS, GIS, and RFID, the movement of tourists within scenic spots has attracted attention [ 46 ]. Research on visitor movement in national parks, theme parks, protected areas, etc. continues to increase [ 47 – 49 ], and explore the influencing factors of visitor movement [ 50 ], broadening the microscale visitor mobility research content. TM also has economic, social, and cultural impacts on destinations through the movement of tourists. Numerous empirical studies have shown that tourist arrivals have a positive impact on economic growth [ 51 ]. Tourism is an important driver of economic growth [ 52 ]. However, some studies have shown that tourist arrivals do not directly lead to economic growth, but promote TEG through regional economic development [ 53 – 55 ]. The mobility of tourism will also bring about changes in destination transportation facilities. Transportation is not only an important carrier of TM but also an important part of tourists’ travel experience [ 8 ]. It also has a positive impact on destination company value together with TM [ 26 ].

There are many theoretical discussions and empirical studies on the factors influencing TEG. From the perspective of suppliers, resource endowment [ 56 – 58 ] and environmental quality [ 59 – 62 ] are the fundamental factors determining tourism development. Simultaneously, as a typical service industry, human capital and physical capital in the tourism industry [ 63 , 64 ] and service level [ 65 ] will impact tourism economic efficiency. From the perspective of demanders, the rise of per capita income and consumption upgrading continue to drive the transformation in the tourism industry [ 66 ], which in turn leads to an increasing scale of market demand [ 67 ], which provides the possibility of increasing the foreign exchange earnings, local capital accumulation, and consumption spillovers. From the perspective of supporters, scholars have verified the significant effects of factors on TEG, including the transportation facilities and accessibility [ 68 – 71 ], the basis of the economy and marketization [ 72 ], industrial structure [ 73 ], public policy [ 74 – 76 ], and technological progress [ 77 ].

In summary, the research on TM has paid attention to its impact on the regional economy, but they both ignored the role of TM on TEG. Studies of TEG based on static factors have primarily relied on econometric models [ 78 ]. Although the spatial spillover effects of influencing factors have gradually gained attention, its depth is limited and fails to explore the impact of TM and other related factors on the TEG. TM is becoming central to tourism activities and understanding the capital mobility of tourism will have implications for tourism development under the new mobility paradigm [ 79 ]. This study proposes the concept of TM based on the theory of fluid mechanics, explores its impact on TEG, and analyzes the contribution of each influencing factor to TEG.

Theoretical framework, research methods, and data sources

Theoretical framework.

Traditionally, tourism research considers the tourism system as tourist sources, tourist destinations, and tourist corridors (transportation systems) [ 80 , 81 ]. Under the new mobility paradigm, this study regards the spatial transfer of tourists from the source to the destination as a mobility process. Tourist mobility is the fundamental reason for the existence of tourism. If tourists stop flowing, tourism will cease to exist.

It is known that the fluid will be affected by a variety of factors, such as viscosity, density, resistance coefficient, and altitude. As shown in Fig 1 , the total mobility of tourists from a tourist origin to a tourist destination is the number of tourists (Q). The spatial transfer of tourists, on the other hand, requires the use of transportation infrastructure as well as means of delivery. As an essential vehicle to support tourism development, transportation infrastructure directly reflects regional accessibility and relevance and is a crucial factor influencing TM [ 82 – 84 ], and its construction level has different effects on TEG in different regions [ 11 , 85 – 87 ]. According to the equations in fluid mechanics, the average velocity is equal to the flow rate ratio to the cross-sectional area. It can be deduced that TM = Q/TL. TM is determined by the number of tourists (Q) and the length of transportation infrastructure (TL). According to the definition, this indicator considers both tourist arrivals and flow rate, and its significance lies in its ability to characterize the mobility of tourism factors relying on tourists and physical transportation. This paper also connects the factor decomposition method to determine the importance of TM to TEG and presents theoretical implications for identifying essential factors to enhance tourism efficiency and stimulate tourism industry development.

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https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0275605.g001

Research methods

Measurement of tourism mobility..

Exploratory spatial data analysis.

It is generally believed that tourism has a spatial spillover effect and spatial correlation [ 28 ]. Therefore, we use Exploratory Spatial Data Analysis (ESDA) to detect spatial correlation among the variables. ESDA is used to analyze spatial characteristics through global and local spatial autocorrelation measurements [ 42 , 89 ].

The global Moran’s I is an indicator of whether factors are spatially correlated and its value ranges from -1 to 1. When 0<I≤1, it indicates a positive spatial correlation; when -1≤I <0, it indicates a negative spatial correlation; when I = 0, there is no spatial relationship. The equation is as in ( 2 ).

With a Z statistical test as in Formula ( 4 ), the cluster and outlier analyses can identify H_H (High_High) clusters, L_L (Low_Low) clusters, L_H (low value surrounded by high values) clusters, and H_L (high value surrounded by low values) clusters at a 95% confidence level.

Econometric model.

The econometric model, including tourism economic growth (TEG), tourism mobility (TM), physical capital in the tourism industry (TP), and human capital in the tourism industry (TH), is constructed according to economic growth theory without considering spatial spillover effects. Besides, since the measurement of TM only considers land transportation infrastructure data, the passenger traffic by the airport (TA) is introduced in the model to characterize the air capacity. Eq ( 5 ) represents the econometric model (TEG it ) in province i and year t, where α is the constant term, β is the parameter to be estimated, μ i denotes the spatial effect, and ε it denotes the random error term.

However, the spatial correlation of TEG will lead to biased parameter estimates of traditional econometric models. If the test results of global Moran’s I indicate that TEG is significantly spatially correlated, a spatial econometric model should be introduced to solve the bias-variance problem. The spatial Durbin model ( Eq 6 ) is developed according to Eq 5 . The spatial weight matrix used in the spatial Durbin model is an adjacency matrix. y it represents the TEG in province i and year t; x it represents the TM, TP, TH, and TA in province i and year t; and W ij y jt and W ij x jt are the TEG and lagged terms of each influencing factor, respectively. ρ and φ are spatial lagging coefficients, and v t denotes the time effect.

LMDI decomposition.

The LMDI decomposition method is widely used because it can effectively solve the residual problem in the decomposition and zero and negative values in the data. LMDI In this study, TEG is decomposed according to Eq ( 7 ). The influencing factors of TEG are decomposed into tourism mobility effects ( TE ), cumulative traffic effects ( Traffic ), effects of the tertiary industry ( Industry ), structural effects of the tourism industry ( Structure ), and reception effects ( Reception ). The equations are shown in ( 8 ) to ( 11 ). Traffic indicates the weighted road length; GDP (service) intimates the value added of the tertiary industry; Population represents the population in each province, and Visitors is the number of tourists. Introducing the log-average function L(x,y) defined in Eq ( 12 ). Eq ( 7 ) is decomposed into Eq ( 13 ) by LMDI, where ΔTEG denotes the amount of change in TEG from initial time 0 to period t, and ΔTM、ΔT、ΔI、ΔS、ΔW represent the contribution of each influencing factor to TEG. The equations are shown in ( 14 ) to ( 18 ).

Data sources

The study area is 31 provinces of China (excluding Hong Kong, Macao, and Taiwan), which is divided into seven regions according to the geographical divisions of China. The provinces included in each region are listed in supporting information. Since data availability varies widely across regions, the research period of TM and LMDI decomposition is from 2000 to 2018. As the National Bureau of Statistics of China (NBS) started to collect the employment data of private enterprises and individuals by sector in 2004 and the data for 2018 has not been updated yet, the research period of the spatial econometric model only covers the period from 2004 to 2017.

The data sources involved in the paper are as follows: the transportation infrastructure data come from the China Statistical Yearbook; the number of tourists is obtained from the Statistical Bulletin on National Economic and Social Development. Air passenger traffic data is collected from Civil Aviation Airport Production Statistics Bulletin. We employ the social fixed asset investment in transportation, storage, and postal services, wholesale and retail trade, accommodation and catering, and culture, sports, and entertainment as proxies for physical capital in the tourism industry (TP). This is because various aspects influence tourism development. Considering that only direct tourism investment does not reflect the total investment in tourism by society, we choose the four industries closely related to tourism development as physical capital in the tourism industry.

In this paper, private and individual employees in the transport, storage, and postal industry, wholesale and retail trade, and accommodation and catering industries are used to represent the human capital in the tourism industry (TH). The main reason for this is that, on the one hand, most studies only consider the number of employees in travel agencies, scenic spots, and star hotels, which differs significantly from the actual number of direct and indirect employees in tourism. On the other hand, since private enterprises and individual employment solve more than 80% of the urban employment problem, the number of private enterprises and individual employment in the three industries related to the tourism industry is chosen to represent the human capital. All the above data are collected from the NBS ( http://data.stats.gov.cn ). In the LMDI decomposition, the value added of the tertiary industry and the population in each province come from the China Statistical Yearbook.

Analysis of tourism mobility measurement results

Spatiotemporal evolution characteristics of tourism mobility.

Limited by space, Table 1 only shows the results of TM over five years. During the study period, TM increased from 56~12745 p visitors /km to 382~18865 p visitors /km, with an average annual growth rate between 2.20% and 13.46%. According to the average value of TM ( Fig 2 ), the study areas are divided into the following three types.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0275605.g002

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0275605.t001

• “Leading Area”, including East China and North China, ranked first and second in all regions. Their TM increased from 2679.39 and 1884.34 p visitors/km in 2000 to 5859.93 and 5209.94 p visitors/km in 2018. However, their annual average growth rates were 5.07% and 6.43%, respectively, ranking first and second from the bottom in all regions. East China is located on the coast, relying on superior natural conditions and an economic foundation, and its regional transportation system is relatively complete. Therefore, it has formed many advantageous tourist resource gathering areas and has become the main tourist destination of inbound tourists in China, and its mobility has long ranked first in the country. As a political and economic center, Beijing has become a tourist attraction for domestic and inbound tourism with a large number of historical and cultural tourism resources. It also drives the joint development of the tourism industry in North China with the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei urban agglomeration as the core, making North China the second largest core area of TM after East China.
• “Stable Area”, including South China, Southwest China, Central China, and Northeast China, ranked third to sixth in all regions. Their TM increased from 903.57p visitors/km, 695.15p visitors/km, 632.06p visitors/km, 493.33 p visitors/km in 2000 to 2626.11p visitors/km, 2754.97p visitors/km, 2857.88p visitors/km, 2244.68 p visitors/km in 2018. The average annual growth rates were 6.58%, 8.81%, 9.06%, and 9.38%, respectively. TM in South China grew rapidly during 2005~2015, while it has gradually slowed down in recent years. This is mainly due to the construction of the early transportation system in South China, which increased tourist mobility. After the basic construction of facilities, the incremental tourist inflows decreased, and the overall growth remained stable. Central China has become one of the core transportation hubs under its location and has driven regional tourism development, becoming a central province in the second echelon of TM. Due to geographical restrictions, Northeast and Southwest China are less connected to the transportation network than coastal areas, resulting in relatively low levels of TM. Northeast China focuses on the development of heavy industry but pays little attention to the tertiary industry, and tourism infrastructure construction and resource development are relatively weak, which leads to low TM. There are many mountains in Southwest China, and its early traffic development level lags. With the opening of the Chengdu-Chongqing high-speed railway and Chengdu-Guizhou high-speed railway, and the development of the air transportation industry, the land and air transportation layout in Southwest China is becoming increasingly mature. Southwest China actively developed its resources, and the tourist inflow increased from 145 million (2000) to 2.994 billion (2018), with an average value of TM catching up with that of southern China during 2016~2018.
• “Potential Area”, including Northwest China, ranks last in terms of average tourist mobility. Its TM increased from 282.01 p visitors/km in 2000 to 1427.58 p visitors/km in 2018, but its average annual growth rate was 10.01%, ranking first among all regions. As less developed region, Northwest China has a poor foundation in economic development and openness to the outside world, and TM has long been at the bottom of the list. Although TM in Northwest China has long been at the bottom of the list, its mobility growth rate leads other regions as tourism infrastructure construction and resource development levels have improved under the active promotion of Western Development policies, the Five-Year Plan, and the Territorial Tourism Strategy.

To more intuitively observe the temporal and spatial change characteristics of TM during the study period, we apply the method of natural breaks to classify the 31 provinces. Natural breaks classes are based on natural groupings inherent in the data. Class breaks are identified that best group similar values and maximize the differences between classes. The features are divided into classes whose boundaries are set where there are relatively big differences in the data values. The natural breaks classification method is a data classification method designed to determine the best arrangement of values into different classes. This is done by seeking to minimize each class’s average deviation from the class mean while maximizing each class’s deviation from the means of the other groups [ 92 ]. We divided the 31 provinces into five categories, highest-value area, higher-value area, medium-value area, lower-value area, and lowest-value area, according to the TM in 2000, 2005, 2010, 2015, and 2018. As shown in Fig 3 , (1) Shanghai and Beijing have long been in the highest-value area and higher-value area of TM. Tibet, Qinghai, Ningxia, Xinjiang, Inner Mongolia, Gansu, Jilin, Heilongjiang, Hubei, and Hainan have long been in the lowest-value and lower-value areas. (2) Over time, the number of provinces in the highest-value area and the higher-value area increased significantly, from 2 provinces in 2000 to 12 provinces in 2018. The number of provinces in the lowest-value area and lower-value area significantly decreased, from 26 provinces in 2000 to 12 provinces in 2018; the number of provinces in the medium-value area fluctuated randomly, with the fewest 3 in 2000 and the most 13 in 2015. (3) Except for Shanxi, Northwest China has been in the lowest-value area and the lower-value area for a long time; The TM values in Southwest China have changed greatly. Chongqing and Guizhou have jumped from the lower-value area to the higher-value area, and Yunnan has jumped from the low-value area to the medium-value area. Tibet is relatively stable and has been in the lowest-value area for a long time; South China is relatively stable, but the average value TM in Guangxi has changed greatly, jumping from the lower-value area to the higher-value area; The average TM in Central China has been in the low-value area for a long time. Central China is also relatively stable, and its average TM has long been located in the lower-value area and the medium-value area. Except for Shanghai, which has always been in the highest-value area, the initial value of TM in other provinces in East China has jumped upward. In the Northeast, Liaoning’s TM has always been in a leading position, and it has gradually transitioned from a lower-value area to a higher-value area. However, Jilin and Heilongjiang have always been in the lowest-value area and the lower-value area, respectively. Changes in TM in North China are diverse. Beijing has long been located in the highest-value area and higher value area. Inner Mongolia has been in the lowest-value area for a long time. Hebei is in the lower-value area most of the time. Tianjin and Shanxi changed greatly and finally jumped to the highest-value area and the higher-value area, respectively.

a. 2000, b. 2005, c. 2010, d. 2015, e. 2018.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0275605.g003

We use the standard deviation ellipse to identify the direction of TM in each province. As shown in Fig 3 , the lengths of the minor semiaxis and major semiaxis of the ellipse increased significantly. The growth of the short semiaxis reveals that the degree of dispersion of TM in China’s provinces is gradually increasing. This result is consistent with the previous analysis conclusions that TM in some provinces shows a more obvious transition trend, which makes the overall dispersion of TM increase.

Spatial correlation characteristics of tourism mobility

Global spatial autocorrelation of tourism mobility..

We use ArcGIS 10.8 to calculate the global Moran’s I of TM for 2000–2018, and the results are shown in the table below ( Table 2 ). The global Moran’s I values from 2000 to 2018 were all positive, and the results from 2000 to 2015 were not significant, and the results from 2016 to 2018 were all significant at the 90% level. TM presents a significant positive spatial correlation. This shows that provinces with high TM in China have relatively high TM in their surrounding areas. From the overall trend, the spatial correlation degree of China’s TM has gradually increased, but its value has not exceeded 0.1, indicating that the spatial agglomeration effect of China’s TM is still weak.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0275605.t002

Local spatial autocorrelation cluster of tourism mobility.

The global Moran’s I cannot reflect the spatial correlation exhibited by local regions or individual provinces. We further use ArcGIS 10.8 to draw the LISA cluster diagram for 2000, 2005, 2010, 2015, and 2018 ( Fig 4 ). The research samples are divided into four types of agglomeration: provinces with high TM are surrounded by provinces with high TM (H-H agglomeration), provinces with high TM are surrounded by provinces with low TM (H-L agglomeration), provinces with low TM are surrounded by provinces with high TM (L-H agglomeration), and provinces with low TM are surrounded by provinces with low TM (L-L agglomeration).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0275605.g004

The results show that (1) provinces with H-H aggregation of TM in different periods are relatively stable; L-L and L-H aggregation types are stable but mixed with changes; The H-L aggregation type does not appear, which indicates that there is no "darkness under the light" area for China’s provincial TM. Provinces with high TM can improve the TM of weekly provinces to a certain extent. (2) The H-H agglomeration is mainly concentrated in Jiangsu and Zhejiang. These regions are economically developed and have high per capita discretionary income. Moreover, the tourism infrastructure in these regions is more complete than that in other regions, and the tourist reception scale is also higher, so their TM shows a high local concentration. (3) The L-L agglomeration types are mainly distributed in geographically remote areas such as Qinghai, Tibet, Gansu, and Xinjiang in inland China. Moreover, Xinjiang and Gansu temporarily withdraw from the L-L agglomeration area. The main reason for this pattern is that the transportation infrastructure in the areas above mentioned is relatively underdeveloped. The "space-time compression effect" brought about by the rapid development of China’s transportation is not significant. Furthermore, due to the distance from the main tourist source markets, although the TM shows a high growth rate, it is still in the lowest-value area and the lower-value area for a long time. (4) L-H agglomeration is mainly transferred in Anhui, Shandong and Hebei, and these provinces are located in the “Leading Area”. The average value of TM in the surrounding provinces is generally high, forming a "collapse area" for TM.

The impact of tourism mobility on tourism economic growth

Spatial autocorrelation of tourism economic growth.

In this study, a Monte Carlo simulation was selected to analyze the spatial autocorrelation of TEG ( Table 3 ). Moran’s I was positive from 2000 to 2018. They passed the significance test of different degrees except in 2006, indicating that TEG has a significant positive spatial correlation. Therefore, a spatial econometric model should be selected to analyze the influencing factors of TEG.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0275605.t003

Traditional panel data model

The unit root test using LLC and Fisher showed no unit root for TEG, TM, TH, TP, and TA ( Table 4 ). The Kao test, Pedroni test, and Westerlund test were used to determine the cointegration relationship between the variables. The test results showed a cointegration relationship, indicating that the data can be used for modeling.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0275605.t004

In terms of the regression model, the BP Lagrangian test results show the rejection of the mixed model. Wooldridge and Wald’s test indicates the presence of heteroskedasticity and autocorrelation in the data. The presence of heteroskedasticity would lead to an increase in the variance of the model parameters and invalidate the Hausman test results. If the regression is still performed using the method without heteroskedasticity, it will undermine the validity of the t-test and F-test, while autocorrelation will exaggerate the significance of the parameters. Therefore, the panel model is selected by the over-identification test (Hausman test result is significant), and the result shows that the Sargan-Hansen statistic is 14.32 and significant, so fixed effect modeling should be selected.

To further address heteroskedasticity and autocorrelation, this study uses Driscoll-Kraay standard errors for regression. The results in Table 5 show a significant positive effect of each variable on TEG, where each 1% increase in TM will promote 0.62% growth in the tourism economy.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0275605.t005

Spatial panel data model

In this paper, the specific form of the spatial panel data model was determined by LM-LAG and LM-ERROR tests. If the result of LM-lag is significant and LM-error is not significant, then SLM should be used, and vice versa, SEM should be used. If LM-lag and LM-error statistics are significant, it indicates that the spatial correlation of the lag term and the spatial correlation of the residuals should be considered. In this case, the SDM can be used to set the model. Subsequently, this study determined whether the SDM model would degenerate into SLM or SEM by Wald and LR tests, and the results showed that all passed the significance test. Meanwhile, the test results of LM-lag, LM-error, LM-lag (robust), and LM-error (robust) were significant ( Table 6 ), indicating that the model set using SDM has a certain rationality.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0275605.t006

We selected the regression model through the Hausman test, and the result showed that the value was 19.31, and the corresponding probability value was 0.007, which indicated that the null hypothesis of random effect was rejected. Therefore, the fixed-effect model was selected for regression analysis. Table 7 shows the estimation results, where ρ rejects the original hypothesis only in the Spatio-temporal fixed-effects model. Therefore, this paper provides a specific analysis of the Spatio-temporal fixed-effects model. The regression results indicate that TM shows a significant positive effect on regional TEG.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0275605.t007

According to the results and spatial effect decomposition ( Table 8 ), ρ is -0.559, indicating that the growth of the tourism economy in neighboring provinces will have a negative impact on the local area. The direct effect of TM is significant, indicating that TM will promote TEG. However, the indirect effect results show that the increase in TM in neighboring provinces will have a negative impact on the local TEG.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0275605.t008

Decomposition of the influencing factors by LMDI.

We decompose the influencing factors and analyze their contribution trend. Table 9 shows the specific contribution of each influencing factor to the TEG in the seven regions.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0275605.t009

ΔT increases from 15.41% in 2000~2005 to 22.55% (2005~2010), and then decreases to 9.35% in 2010~2015 and 7.01% in 2015~2018. Overall, the ΔT showed a downward trend, but it is still an important factor in promoting TEG. The average contribution rate of the ΔT from 2000 to 2018 reached 14.82%.

ΔI maintained an overall downward trend during 2000 ~2018. It gradually decreased from 31.42% (2000~2005) to 22.94% (2015~2018). In contrast, the added-value of tertiary industry per capita increases from 3653 yuan to 34,969 yuan in the same period, indicating that the contribution of tertiary industry to TEG continues to decline, and tourism is gradually decoupled from the development of the tertiary industry.

ΔS maintained an overall upward trend during 2000~2018, from 7.09% (2000~2005) to 14.67% (2015~2018). The overall contribution rate was 11.50%, indicating that increasing the proportion of the tertiary industry in tourism can promote TEG.

ΔR shows a negative effect on TEG, and the degree of adverse effect increases slowly from 26.22% to 27.67%. The overall contribution rate was 28.67%. Reception is defined as the ratio of the resident population to the number of tourists. This shows that on the premise that the permanent resident population remains basically unchanged, the contribution to TEG can be effectively increased by expanding the scale of tourists.

Regression results of tourism mobility on tourism economic growth

This study briefly analyzes the regression results of the traditional and spatial panel data model. However, the spatial autocorrelation test results of TEG show an overall trend of fluctuating and increasing spatial correlation, especially with 2009 as the abrupt change point and a significant increase in the degree of agglomeration. Therefore, the article discusses the results of the spatial panel data model in detail, and the primary purpose of analyzing the traditional panel data model is to compare it with the spatial econometric results.

The regression results of the spatial econometric model show that both TM and TA have a significant positive impact on TEG, which verifies the hypothesis we proposed above. This result is also consistent with Wu et al. [ 93 ] and Perboli et al. [ 94 ]. In contrast, TP and TH have no significant impact on TEG. However, previous studies have also shown that the spatial spillover effect of tourism can significantly affect the TEG [ 27 – 29 ]. Therefore, the impact of TP and TH on TEG remains to be further confirmed.

According to the decomposition results, TM will promote the growth of the local tourism economy but will have a negative impact on neighboring provinces, which indicates a more obvious competition in tourism development among provinces. The increase in mobility in a particular place under a given number of tourists will lead to a diversion of tourists, which will have a negative impact on neighboring regions. Therefore, the tourism industry should also pay attention to the competitive situation in the surrounding areas. The development of tourism focus not only on improving local tourism mobility but also on neighboring areas. Both TP and TH manifest substantial spatial spillover effects. The increase in TP and TH in neighboring areas will produce positive effects, making local areas attach importance to the development of tourism resources and enhancing tourism attraction. TA has a significant positive contribution to TEG, which is consistent with the conclusion of Yang and Wong [ 27 ]. However, the spatial spillover effects of TA on TEG are not significant, which may be related to the fact that air traffic does not depend on adjacent spaces.

Analysis of influencing factors’ contribution rate to tourism economic growth

Tm and δtm..

The ΔTM in North, Central, Southwest, and South China all show a trend of "falling and rising." It should be noted that the ΔTM in North China was negative from 2005 to 2010, mainly due to the significant decline in TM in Tianjin and Hebei. The improvement in the transportation infrastructure has a significant impact on TM in Central and Southwest China. The opening of high-speed railroads is a fundamental reason for the fluctuation in ΔTM. For South China, due to the implementation of the overnight visitor count statistics in the tourism statistics system of Guangdong in 2015~2018, the number of tourists decreased significantly compared to 2010~2015, which in turn led to a significant weakening of the ΔTM. In contrast to the regions mentioned above, the ΔTM in Northeast China shows a trend of "rising and falling" changes. From 2010 to 2015, the contribution of TM to TEG in Northeast China declined and was negative. The main reason is the overall decline of the regional economy in the Northeast region at this stage. In 2014 and 2015, the GDP growth rates of Northeast China were 4.23% and -0.84%, respectively, ranking second and last among the seven regions in China during the same period. At the same time, the Northeast region began to carry out statistical "squeeze water" at this stage, which caused obvious fluctuations in the scale of tourists. Therefore, the downturn in the regional economic environment and stricter tourism statistics have negatively affected the contribution of tourism mobility to tourism economic growth. However, since 2016, China has put forward the " all-for-one tourism" policy. Provinces began to pay more attention to the role of tourism in regional economic growth. All-for-one tourism policies and new management systems have led to the continuous improvement of TM in Northeast China from 2015 to 2018, and the contribution to TEG has increased significantly compared with 2010–2015. The ΔTM in East China gradually increased from 6.35% to 25.66%, which is related to the opening of the high-speed railroad network in 2010, leading to a significant increase in TM. Northwest China has made the tourism industry a key point for economic growth, and its tourist reception and transportation construction levels have been rapidly improved under the impetus of the all-for-one tourism strategy.

Traffic and ΔT.

The contribution of ΔT to TEG generally shows a downward trend. However, during the same period, Traffic showed a gradual upward trend. In 2018, it increased by 258.72% compared with 2000. Among them, it increased by 35.61% from 2000 to 2005, increased by 91.36% from 2005 to 2010, increased by 24.83% from 2010 to 2015, and increased by 10.73% from 2015 to 2018. From this, it can be judged that there may be a "threshold" in the transportation infrastructure. When the stock of transportation infrastructure in China reaches a certain level, the accumulation of transportation infrastructure cannot improve the contribution to the TEG. The role of transportation infrastructure in influencing tourists’ decisions and determining TM cannot be ignored. However, its contribution rate gradually decreases as transportation facilities are gradually improved and regional accessibility differences narrow. The ΔT is 14.82% during the examination period, in which the contribution rate of Traffic to TEG in East China (16.15%), Central China (17.44%), Southwest China (15.75%), and Northwest China (15.40%) is higher than that in North, Northeast and South China. This is mainly because Central China and East China are the regions with the largest passenger turnover in China. From 2000 to 2018, the average passenger turnover in Central China and East China was 118.988 billion person-kilometers and 84.595 billion person-kilometers, respectively. The Southwest China and Northwest China are among the regions with the fastest growth in passenger turnover in China, increasing by 3.13 times and 1.77 times respectively, ranking first and second in all regions.

Industry and ΔI.

The tertiary industry consists of transportation, warehousing and postal industry, information transmission, real estate industry, financial industry, wholesale and retail industry, accommodation and catering industry, etc. Tourism is only a part of it. The per capita added value of the tertiary industry reflects the degree of development of the service industry in various regions, and this indicator has achieved a relatively large increase in terms of changing trends. It increased from 3,653 yuan in 2000 to 34,969 yuan, an increase of 8.57 times. The contribution of ΔI to TEG has gradually declined, mainly due to the slowdown in the growth rate of the per capita added value of the tertiary industry. The growth rate dropped from 91.30% in 2000–2005 to 34.35% in 2015–2018. The contribution of ΔI to TEG in North China, South China, Northwest China, and Southwest China is consistent with the national trend. Northeast China, East China, and Central China show different trends. Especially in the Northeast region, the contribution of ΔI to TEG has dropped significantly. The overall contribution rate of Industry reached 28.18%, indicating that the quality of tertiary industry development has a vital role in promoting TEG. ΔI is generally stable in East and Central China and declines significantly in Northeast China, which may be related to the deceleration of tertiary industry development, as the data show that the added-value of tertiary industry per capita in Liaoning, Heilongjiang, and Jilin increased by 93.04%, 75.15% and 90.43% from 2010 to 2015, while it only grew by 0.63%, 39.88% and 23.18% from 2015 to 2018. Central China was inconsistent with the overall national trend from 2005 to 2010. This is mainly due to the slow increase in the per capita added value of the tertiary industry during this period, ranking last in all regions. During this period, the industrial structure of Central China was still dominated by industry. In 2010, the average industrial added value accounted for 56.37% of GDP, the highest in all regions of the country. East China was inconsistent with the overall national trend in 2015–2018. The main reason is that the proportion of the tertiary industry in Fujian and Jiangxi in the region has not exceeded 50%, and there is a large room for optimization and improvement of the industrial structure. Therefore, the growth rate of the added value of the tertiary industry per capita exceeds the previous stage, and the contribution of ΔI to TEG is still rising.

Structure and ΔS.

The share of tertiary industry in tourism in Beijing and Tianjin increased significantly from 2010 to 2018 compared to 2000, leading to the rapid growth of ΔS in North China. The ΔS in Northeast China was -3.96% from 2005 to 2010, mainly since the growth rate of tertiary industry in Heilongjiang and Liaoning lagged behind that of the tourism industry. The ΔS in East, Central, and Southwest China is relatively stable, indicating that tourism and tertiary industry maintain a coordinated development. The ΔS in South China has achieved a shift from negative to positive growth. As the economic volume of Guangdong accounts for a large proportion in South China and the growth rate of tourism significantly lags behind the development rate of the tertiary industry, it leads to a low ΔS in South China from 2000 to 2010. The opening of high-speed rail provides new opportunities for tourism development, and the ΔS in South China gradually increased to 14.38% and 10.73% in 2010~2018. The ΔS in Northwest China has been increasing, which suggests that the tourism economy is the primary driver of tertiary industry growth. The continuous growth of the ΔS contribution to TEG is partially consistent with the findings of Chang et al. [ 95 ], De Vita and Kyaw [ 96 ], and Zuo and Huang [ 97 ]. The higher Structure is, the greater the contribution of ΔS to TEG. However, the literature above mentioned also pointed out that ΔS has a turning point. For example, Zuo and Huang [ 97 ] found that this value in China is 8.25%.

Reception and ΔR.

The ΔR has a negative impact on TEG. Zuo and Huang [ 97 ] used the ratio of tourist arrivals to the permanent resident population to characterize tourism specialization in a study evaluating China’s tourism-oriented economic growth. Before reaching the inflection point of 30.34 (that is, the tourism reception effect value is 0.03), this indicator has a significant positive impact on TEG. From 2000 to 2018, the tourism reception effect value dropped from 1.47 to 0.11, still less than 0.03. Therefore, the results of our study also partially confirm the research of Zuo and Huang [ 97 ]. While expanding the scale of tourists, various regions should also pay attention to the "inflection point" of the Reception value. When the inflection point is reached, the larger the scale of tourists is, the smaller the contribution to the TEG. However, the ratio of regional population to tourist decreases from 1.47 to 0.11 during the period from 2000 to 2018, indicating that not only the number of tourists should be taken into account, but also the quality of the tourism and the per capita tourism consumption should be attached importance to the TEG. ΔR is relatively stable, among which the southwest and northwest China have the most significant negative contribution to the TEG, indicating that the growth rate of the number of tourists received in the above regions is higher than that of other regions.

Conclusions

This paper proposes the concept of TM based on the hydrodynamic equation, constructs an econometric model of TEG with TM as the core explanatory variable, explores the direct and indirect effects of TM on TEG, measures the specific contribution of each influencing factor using the LMDI decomposition, and draws the following conclusions.

• The TM in China has maintained rapid growth for a long time. However, there are differences in the rate of growth in different regions. East China and North China are Leading Area, with the highest average tourism mobility, but the smallest average annual growth rate; Central China, South China, Northeast China, and Southwest China are Stable Area, with the middle average TM and average annual growth rate; Northwest China is Potential Area, which has the smallest average TM, but the largest average annual increase. The TM in each region only showed a significant positive spatial correlation in 2016–2018. The space-time pattern is constantly changing over time. The high-value areas and high-value areas of TM increased significantly, while the low-value areas and low-value areas decreased significantly. The local spatial autocorrelation results of TM are stable, and various agglomeration states are stably distributed in some provinces.
• The regression results of the traditional panel data model and the spatial panel data model both show that TM has a significant positive effect on TEG. Under the premise of considering the spatial effect, the improvement of TEG in a province by TM will have a negative impact on the adjacent province.
• Applying the LMDI decomposition method, the TEG is decomposed into TM , Traffic , Industry , Structure , and Reception. The results show that the contribution of TM and Structure to TEG showed an upward trend, with average annual contribution rates of 15.76% and 11.50%, respectively. It indicates that improving TM is a crucial way to promote tourism development. The contribution of the Traffic and Industry to TEG generally showed a downward trend, with average annual contribution rates of 14.82% and 28.18%, respectively. The Reception has a negative impact on the TEG, but it is still a positive contribution, with an average annual contribution rate of 28.67%. The five types of effects of TEG decomposition were different due to regional differences.

The main contributions of this study are as follows: (1) Based on fluid mechanics, we constructed an indicator of TM. We comprehensively consider the impact of tourist arrivals and transportation infrastructure on TEG, which is rarely proposed by scholars in the literature. Our research enriches the research on the influencing factors of TEG. (2) We analyze the influence of TM on TEG based on the econometric model, which highlights the importance of TM. Moreover, we found that TM has negative spatial overflow.(3) Based on the LMDI method, we decompose TEG into five major effects, rather than just considering traditional variables such as human input, capital input, and tourism resource input. Our study further enriches the research on the influencing factors of TEG.

Based on our findings above, we draw the following policy implications. To improve TEG, late-developing regions should improve TM by building large-scale tourism transportation infrastructure, promoting destination marketing to attract tourists, and paying attention to the possible negative effects of increased TM in neighboring regions. At the same time, the improvement of TM should be emphasized at different stages. The threshold effect of tourism transportation infrastructure should also be fully considered. After the transportation infrastructure reaches a certain stock, its contribution to TEG will decrease. At this time, expanding the scale of tourists should become the main tourism development policy.

There are still some limitations in this study. It is difficult to directly collect data on the inflow and outflow of tourist between certain provinces. Therefore, we only select inflow of tourists as the primary data and do not consider the influence of the tourists’ outflow on TM. In fact, increased transport accessibility will not only expand the inflow of tourists but also affect the outflow of tourists. Therefore, the superposition effect of traffic and tourist inflow/outflow should be considered comprehensively to improve the scientific rationality of TM measurement. This study lacks comparative studies across multiple countries. The research in our study may show differentiated findings for developed or less developed countries. When constructing the econometric model, we mainly consider TM as the core explanatory variable, and only select human input and capital input, and air traffic related to traffic as control variables from the perspective of the economic growth model. In the future, the theory and practice of TM will be further explored with multivariate data to form a more rigorous and systematic cognitive framework.

Supporting information

S1 fig. map of the seven regions..

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0275605.s001

S1 File. Research data.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0275605.s002

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The state of tourism and hospitality 2024

Tourism and hospitality are on a journey of disruption. Shifting source markets and destinations, growing demand for experiential and luxury travel, and innovative business strategies are all combining to dramatically alter the industry landscape. Given this momentous change, it’s important for stakeholders to consider and strategize on four major themes:

• The bulk of travel is close to home. Although international travel might draw headlines, stakeholders shouldn’t neglect the big opportunities in their backyards. Domestic travel still represents the bulk of travel spending, and intraregional tourism is on the rise.
• Consumers increasingly prioritize travel—when it’s on their own terms. Interest in travel is booming, but travelers are no longer content with a one-size-fits-all experience. Individual personalization might not always be practical, but savvy industry players can use segmentation and hypothesis-driven testing to improve their value propositions. Those that fail to articulate target customer segments and adapt their offerings accordingly risk getting left behind.
• The face of luxury travel is changing. Demand for luxury tourism and hospitality is expected to grow faster than any other travel segment today—particularly in Asia. It’s crucial to understand that luxury travelers don’t make up a monolith. Segmenting by age, nationality, and net worth can reveal varied and evolving preferences and behaviors.
• As tourism grows, destinations will need to prepare to mitigate overcrowding. Destinations need to be ready to handle the large tourist flows of tomorrow. Now is the time for stakeholders to plan, develop, and invest in mitigation strategies. Equipped with accurate assessments of carrying capacities and enhanced abilities to gather and analyze data, destinations can improve their transportation and infrastructure, build tourism-ready workforces, and preserve their natural and cultural heritages.

McKinsey Live event: Faces, places, and trends: The state of tourism & hospitality

Thursday, June 13 at 10:30 a.m EDT / 4:30 p.m CET

Now boarding: Faces, places, and trends shaping tourism in 2024

Global travel is back and buzzing. The amount of travel fell by 75 percent in 2020; however, travel is on its way to a full recovery by the end of 2024. More regional trips, an emerging population of new travelers, and a fresh set of destinations are powering steady spending in tourism.

There’s no doubt that people still love to travel and will continue to seek new experiences in new places. But where will travelers come from, and where will they go?

We share a snapshot of current traveler flows, along with estimates for growth through 2030.

The way we travel now

Which trends are shaping traveler sentiment now? What sorts of journeys do today’s travelers dream about? How much are they willing to spend on their trips? And what should industry stakeholders do to adapt to the traveler psychology of the moment?

To gauge what’s on the minds of present-day travelers, we surveyed more than 5,000 of them. The findings reveal disparate desires, generational divides, and a newly emerging set of traveler archetypes.

Updating perceptions about today’s luxury traveler

Demand for luxury tourism and hospitality is expected to grow faster than for any other segment. This growth is being powered in part by a large and expanding base of aspiring luxury travelers with net worths between $100,000 and $1 million, many of whom are younger and increasingly willing to spend larger shares of their wealth on upscale travel options. The increase is also a result of rising wealth levels in Asia.

We dug deeper into this ongoing evolution by surveying luxury travelers around the globe about their preferences, plans, and expectations. Some widely held notions about luxury travelers—such as how much money they have, how old they are, and where they come from—could be due for reexamination.

Destination readiness: Preparing for the tourist flows of tomorrow

As global tourism grows, it will be crucial for destinations to be ready. How can the tourism ecosystem prepare to host unprecedented volumes of visitors while managing the challenges that can accompany this success? A large flow of tourists, if not carefully channeled, can encumber infrastructure, harm natural and cultural attractions, and frustrate locals and visitors alike.

Now is the time for tourism stakeholders to combine their thinking and resources to look for better ways to handle the visitor flows of today while properly preparing themselves for the visitor flows of tomorrow. We offer a diagnostic that destinations can use to spot early-warning signs about tourism concentration, along with suggestions for funding mechanisms and strategies to help maximize the benefits of tourism while minimizing its negative impacts.

Six trends shaping new business models in tourism and hospitality

As destinations and source markets have transformed over the past decade, tourism and hospitality companies have evolved, too. Accommodation, home sharing, cruises, and theme parks are among the sectors in which new approaches could present new opportunities. Stakeholders gearing up for new challenges should look for business model innovations that will help sustain their hard-won growth—and profits.

Unbundling offerings, cross-selling distinctive experiences, and embracing data-powered strategies can all be winning moves. A series of insight-driven charts reveal significant trends and an outlook on the future.

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Travel and tourism in Russia - statistics & facts

Covid-19 impact on russians' travel destinations, impact of the war in ukraine on tourism in russia, key insights.

Detailed statistics

Travel and tourism's total contribution to GDP in Russia 2019-2023

Travel and tourism's total contribution to employment in Russia 2019-2023

Tourism spending in Russia 2019-2022, by travel purpose

Editor’s Picks Current statistics on this topic

Destinations

Leading outbound travel destinations in Russia 2021-2022

Number of outbound tourism trips from Russia 2014-2022

Leading source markets for travel to Russia 2020-2022, by arrivals

Further recommended statistics

• Premium Statistic Countries with the highest outbound tourism expenditure worldwide 2019-2023
• Premium Statistic Travel industry revenue distribution in Russia 2022, by segment
• Premium Statistic Tourism spending in Russia 2019-2022, by travel purpose
• Basic Statistic Travel and tourism's total contribution to GDP in Russia 2019-2023
• Basic Statistic Travel and tourism's total contribution to employment in Russia 2019-2023

Countries with the highest outbound tourism expenditure worldwide 2019-2023

Countries with the highest outbound tourism expenditure worldwide from 2019 to 2023 (in billion U.S. dollars)

Travel industry revenue distribution in Russia 2022, by segment

Distribution of travel industry revenue in Russia in 2022, by segment

Travel and tourism spending in Russia from 2019 to 2022, by purpose (in billion U.S. dollars)

Travel and tourism's total contribution to GDP in Russia 2019-2023

Total contribution of travel and tourism to gross domestic product (GDP) in Russia from 2019 to 2023 (in billion Russian rubles)

Travel and tourism's total contribution to employment in Russia 2019-2023

Total contribution of travel and tourism to employment in Russia from 2019 to 2023 (in million jobs)

Outbound tourism

• Basic Statistic Outbound travel expenditure in Russia 2011-2022
• Premium Statistic Number of outbound tourism trips from Russia 2014-2022
• Premium Statistic Leading outbound travel destinations in Russia 2021-2022
• Premium Statistic Number of outbound tourists from Russia 2022, by territory
• Premium Statistic Outbound tourist flow growth in Russia 2022, by destination
• Premium Statistic European Union (EU) Schengen visas issued in Russia 2010-2023

Outbound travel expenditure in Russia 2011-2022

Outbound travel expenditure in Russia from 2011 to 2022 (in billion U.S. dollars)

Number of outbound tourism trips from Russia from 2014 to 2022 (in 1,000s)

Number of outbound travel visits from Russia from 2021 to 2022, by destination (in 1,000s)

Number of outbound tourists from Russia 2022, by territory

Number of Russians travelling abroad with tourism purposes in 2022, by territory (in 1,000s)

Outbound tourist flow growth in Russia 2022, by destination

Growth in outbound travelers with tourism purposes from Russia in 2022 compared to 2019, by selected destination

European Union (EU) Schengen visas issued in Russia 2010-2023

Number of Schengen Area visas issued from applications to consulates in Russia from 2010 to 2023*

Inbound and domestic tourism

• Basic Statistic International tourism spending in Russia 2011-2022
• Premium Statistic Leading source markets for travel to Russia 2020-2022, by arrivals
• Basic Statistic Domestic travel spending in Russia 2019-2022
• Basic Statistic Number of nature protected areas in Russia 2015-2022, by type
• Premium Statistic Estimated demand for inbound tourism in Russia Q1 2014-Q3 2023
• Premium Statistic Inbound tourist flow growth in Russia 2020-2023
• Premium Statistic Number of inbound tourist arrivals in Russia 2014-2022

International tourism spending in Russia 2011-2022

Spending of international tourists in Russia from 2011 to 2022 (in billion U.S. dollars)

Leading inbound tourism markets visiting Russia from 2020 to 2022, by number of trips (in 1,000s)

Domestic travel spending in Russia 2019-2022

Domestic tourism expenditure in Russia from 2019 to 2022 (in billion U.S. dollars)

Number of nature protected areas in Russia 2015-2022, by type

Number of nature conservation areas in Russia from 2015 to 2022, by type

Estimated demand for inbound tourism in Russia Q1 2014-Q3 2023

Estimated balance of demand for inbound tourism in Russia from 1st quarter 2014 to 3rd quarter 2023

Inbound tourist flow growth in Russia 2020-2023

Year-over-year growth in inbound tourism trips with tourism purposes in Russia from 2020 to 2023

Number of inbound tourist arrivals in Russia 2014-2022

Number of inbound tourism visits to Russia from 2014 to 2022 (in 1,000s)

Travel companies

• Premium Statistic Travel industry organizations distribution in Russia 2022, by segment
• Premium Statistic Number of tourism companies in Russia 2010-2022
• Premium Statistic Most popular travel websites in Russia 2023, by traffic

Travel industry organizations distribution in Russia 2022, by segment

Distribution of travel industry organizations in Russia in 2022, by segment

Number of tourism companies in Russia 2010-2022

Number of travel agencies and reservation service establishments in Russia from 2010 to 2022

Most popular travel websites in Russia 2023, by traffic

Leading travel and tourism websites in Russia in August 2023, by monthly visits (in millions)

Package tours

• Premium Statistic Number of package tours sold in Russia 2014-2021, by type
• Premium Statistic Value of package tours sold in Russia 2014-2022, by type
• Premium Statistic Package tour cost in Russia 2014-2022, by type
• Premium Statistic Most popular travel destinations on package tours in Russia 2022

Number of package tours sold in Russia 2014-2021, by type

Number of package tours sold in Russia from 2014 to 2021, by tourism type (in 1,000s)

Value of package tours sold in Russia 2014-2022, by type

Total value of package tours sold in Russia from 2014 to 2022, by tourism type (in billion Russian rubles)

Package tour cost in Russia 2014-2022, by type

Average cost of a package tour in Russia from 2014 to 2022, by tourism type (in 1,000 Russian rubles)

Most popular travel destinations on package tours in Russia 2022

Number of outbound tourists sent on tours by travel agencies in Russia in 2022, by destination (in 1,000s)

Transportation

• Premium Statistic Number of domestic airline passengers in Russia monthly 2020-2022
• Premium Statistic Passenger traffic growth of airlines in Russia 2021
• Premium Statistic Travel transportation consumer price in Russia 2022, by type

Number of domestic airline passengers in Russia monthly 2020-2022

Number of passengers boarded by domestic airlines in Russia from January 2020 to May 2022 (in millions)

Passenger traffic growth of airlines in Russia 2021

Year-over-year growth rate in air passengers in Russia in 2021, by carrier

Travel transportation consumer price in Russia 2022, by type

Average consumer price of travel transportation in Russia in 2022, by type (in Russian rubles)

Accommodation

• Basic Statistic Paid travel accommodation services value in Russia 2015-2022
• Premium Statistic Travel accommodation establishments in Russia 2022, by federal district
• Basic Statistic Total room area in travel accommodation in Russia 2013-2022
• Premium Statistic Number of visitors in hotels in Russia 2010-2022
• Basic Statistic Number of hotel visitors in Russia 2022, by travel purpose
• Premium Statistic Overnight accommodation cost in Moscow monthly 2020-2023
• Premium Statistic Hotel occupancy rate in Moscow 2023, by segment
• Premium Statistic Average daily hotel rate in Moscow 2023, by segment

Paid travel accommodation services value in Russia 2015-2022

Value of paid services provided by travel accommodation establishments in Russia from 2015 to 2022 (in billion Russian rubles)

Travel accommodation establishments in Russia 2022, by federal district

Number of collective accommodation establishments in Russia in 2022, by federal district

Total room area in travel accommodation in Russia 2013-2022

Total area of rooms in travel accommodation establishments in Russia from 2013 to 2022 (in 1,000 square meters)

Number of visitors in hotels in Russia 2010-2022

Number of visitors in hotels and similar accommodation establishments in Russia from 2010 to 2022 (in 1,000s)

Number of hotel visitors in Russia 2022, by travel purpose

Number of visitors in hotels and similar accommodation establishments in Russia in 2022, by purpose of travel (in 1,000s)

Overnight accommodation cost in Moscow monthly 2020-2023

Average cost of overnight accommodation in Moscow from May 2020 to September 2023 (in euros)

Hotel occupancy rate in Moscow 2023, by segment

Occupancy rate of quality hotels in Moscow from January to March 2023, by segment

Average daily hotel rate in Moscow 2023, by segment

Average daily rate (ADR) in hotels in Moscow from January to March 2023, by segment (in Russian rubles)

Travel behavior

• Premium Statistic Reasons to not travel long-haul in Russia 2022
• Premium Statistic Intention to travel to Europe in Russia 2019-2022
• Basic Statistic Summer vacation plans of Russians 2012-2023
• Premium Statistic Travel frequency for private purposes in Russia 2023
• Basic Statistic Average holiday spend per person in Russia 2011-2023
• Premium Statistic Attitudes towards traveling in Russia 2023
• Premium Statistic Travel product online bookings in Russia 2023

Reasons to not travel long-haul in Russia 2022

Main reasons for avoiding travel outside the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) in Russia from September to December 2022

Intention to travel to Europe in Russia 2019-2022

Index of intention to travel to Europe from Russia from January 2019 to December 2022 (in points)

Summer vacation plans of Russians 2012-2023

Where do you plan to spend your vacation this summer?

Travel frequency for private purposes in Russia 2023

Travel frequency for private purposes in Russia as of March 2023

Average holiday spend per person in Russia 2011-2023

How much money did you spend per person on holidays this summer? (in Russian rubles)

Attitudes towards traveling in Russia 2023

Attitudes towards traveling in Russia as of March 2023

Travel product online bookings in Russia 2023

Travel product online bookings in Russia as of March 2023

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Airlines on Track for $30 Billion Profit in 2024, IATA Predicts

• Outlook compares with $27.4 billion achieved last year: IATA
• But higher expenses are holding back earnings per passenger

The global airline industry is set to generate $30.5 billion in net income this year, the International Air Transport Association predicted, amid higher ticket prices and a continued desire to travel following the pandemic.

The outlook compares with the $27.4 billion in profit achieved last year, IATA said at its annual general meeting in Dubai on Monday. It’s also more optimistic than the $25.7 billion that IATA predicted for this year in December. But while profit is rising, so are expenses, holding back earnings per passenger, IATA said.

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Expect the cost of your airfare to continue to rise, an aviation trade group and industry heads warn

FILE - A Boeing 777X plane takes off at the Farnborough Air Show fair in Farnborough, England, on July 18, 2022. The cost of your next flight is likely to go up. That’s the word from the International Air Transport Association, which held its annual meeting Monday June 3, 2024 in Dubai, home to the long-haul carrier Emirates. (AP Photo/Frank Augstein, File)

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DUBAI, United Arab Emirates (AP) — The cost of your next flight is likely to go up.

That’s the word from the International Air Transport Association, which held its annual meeting Monday in Dubai, home to the long-haul carrier Emirates.

While carriers recover from the groundings worldwide from the coronavirus pandemic, industry leaders told journalists that there are several costs likely to push those ticket prices ever higher.

Part of that comes from worldwide inflation, an ongoing problem since the pandemic started. Jet fuel costs, roughly a third of all airline expenses, remain high. Meanwhile, a global push for the aviation industry to decarbonize has more carriers fighting for the little amount of so-called sustainable aviation fuel, or SAF, available in the market.

“The airlines will continue to do everything they can to keep costs in control as much as possible for the benefit of consumers,” said Willie Walsh, the director-general of the the International Air Transport Association, an industry-trade group. “But I think it’s unrealistic to expect that airlines can continue to absorb all of the costs. ... It’s not something we like to do, but it’s something we have to do.”

Also pressuring the industry is a pandemic hangover in aircraft production as well, they say. Carriers now keep older planes that burn more fuel flying longer. There also aren’t enough new aircraft to expand routes and increase supply to bring down overall prices.

That warning comes as the IATA estimates globally, airline revenue will reach nearly $1 trillion in 2024, a record high. There will be 4.96 billion travelers on airplanes this year, with total expenses for carriers reaching $936 billion — another record high.

But industry profits also are expected to be nearly $60 billion this year.

In particular, Emirates, a main driver for Dubai’s economy, saw record profits of $4.7 billion in 2023 off revenues of $33 billion.

The Emirates’ results track with those for its base, Dubai International Airport . The world’s busiest airport for international travelers had 86.9 million passengers last year, surpassing numbers for 2019 just before the coronavirus pandemic grounded global aviation.

The airport now plans to move to the city-state’s second, sprawling airfield in its southern desert reaches in the next 10 years in a project worth nearly $35 billion .

Tim Clark, the airline’s president, obliquely acknowledged that Monday by saying that he didn’t want people to “get boxes of tissues out and play the violins” when warning that the industry’s profit margins sit in the low single digits. However, he contended that as airlines have grown larger and carriers consolidated, cost savings have quietly been passed onto consumers now able to book flights across the world.

“It is quite amazing that ticket prices are where they are today,” Clark said. “I think the value-for-money proposition that the consumers have had the benefit from for many decades is something that is one of those hidden bits of the narrative.”

Yvonne Manzi Makolo, the CEO of RwandAir, also highlighted the taxes and fees imposed on carriers by the countries they operate in. She specifically cited those paid by carriers flying out of African nations as “already ridiculous.”

Medjet medical evacuation services explained

• Features and benefits
• Medjet vs. Traditional travel insurance
• Choosing Medjet
• Membership enrollment and utilization
• Conclusion and final recommendations

What is Medjet? Exploring Medical Transport and Travel Protection Services

Affiliate links for the products on this page are from partners that compensate us (see our advertiser disclosure with our list of partners for more details). However, our opinions are our own. See how we rate insurance products to write unbiased product reviews.

• Medjet is an annual membership service that coordinates air-medical transport for travelers.
• Medjet is supplemental to travel insurance and international health insurance, not a replacement.
• Medjet memberships are usually annual, but there are short-term plans available for up to 30 days.

You've booked your trip, packed your bags, and purchased travel insurance coverage. It seems like you're ready for your trip, but you might forget important emergency medical coverage.

Travel insurance usually covers medical evacuations to the nearest hospital. But global medical transport companies like Medjet coordinate transfers to the hospital of your choice. It's another way to protect yourself during travel, especially since it's challenging to coordinate care in a foreign country or new state. 

Here's everything you need to know about Medjet, including whether you should become a member before your next trip. 

Medical evacuation coverage

Medjet is an annual membership service that coordinates air-medical transport for travelers. It's different from travel insurance which covers trip cancellations, damage to personal belongings and emergency medical treatment.

Medjet covers medical transport to the hospital of your choice, usually a facility near home. The company arranges the transportation, and your membership fees cover the costs. Members can also add extra protection against security threats like violent crimes and natural disasters. 

Established in 1991, Medjet was the first company to introduce an air-medical transport membership. Other companies like Global Rescue, SkyMed and International SOS offer similar services today. 

Domestic and international coverage

Medjet offers medical transport services domestically and internationally. It transfers you to the hospital of choice if you're hospitalized more than 150 miles from home, whether you're traveling domestically or abroad.

Features and benefits of Medjet membership for travelers

Membership plans and inclusions.

Medjet offers two annual membership levels: Medjet Assist and Medjet Horizon. The memberships have coverage and price differences, but both cover the following situations. 

• Medical transfer between facilities, even if it's not medically required
• Member's choice of medical facility
• No cost for domestic or international transfers
• Translation services, medical referrals and phone consultations with doctors
• Transfer of mortal remains

Medjet plans cost

The cost for Medjet coverage depends on your coverage type, membership term, age, membership level, and if you want coverage for domestic travel only.

For example, a one-year standard Medjet Assist membership that covers all travel within the membership year, with no single trip lasting longer than 90 days out of the country, costs $315. The same membership for Medjet Horizon costs $474. 

Medjet offers discounts for multi-year coverage. Plus, students and academic faculty can qualify for extended time abroad (up to 140 consecutive days per trip) for the same price as a regular membership. Short-term policies are typically cheaper as well. 

Additional services and features

Opting for medjet horizon gives you additional access to the following benefits..

• Ground hospital transfer via ambulance or other vehicles
• Cash advances for in the event of a medical emergency 
• 24/7 security response for threats like violent crimes and natural disasters.
• Crisis response for wrongful detention, blackmail or kidnap
• Access to legal referrals 

Medjet offers Diamond Memberships for travelers aged 75 to 84. The membership includes all of the benefits of MedjetAssist but is limited to one medical transport per year. 

There are also short-term memberships. These memberships include the same benefits as MedjetAssist but are available in 8, 15, 21 and 30-day terms.

Comparing Medjet to traditional travel insurance

Medjet vs. travel insurance coverage.

Medjet provides different coverage from travel insurance. Comprehensive travel insurance usually covers cancellations, trip delays, lost luggage, and emergency medical expenses. 

Medjet solely covers medical transfers and doesn't offer coverage for emergency medical treatments typically provided by travel medical insurance .

It's worth noting that many travel insurance policies offer medical evacuation and repatriation coverage. However, its scope of coverage is limited compared to Medjet and other subscriptions for global medical transport. For example, Medjet doesn't have monetary coverage limits and will transport you to the hospital of your choice rather than the nearest facility. 

Choosing Medjet for your travel protection

Factors to consider when choosing medjet.

These are several important factors to consider before purchasing a Medjet policy.

• Choice of care facility: While traditional travel insurance only pays to get you to the nearest medical facility, Medjet covers transportation to a medical facility of your choice.  It also covers transfers from one facility to another at no additional cost.
• Coverage limits: Unlike travel insurance, Medjet doesn't impose monetary coverage limits, covering the entire cost of medical evacuation. However, it does limit transports to twice per year for individual members under 75.
• Pre-existing conditions: Medjet doesn't have pre-existing conditions exclusions , unlike a travel insurance policy. 
• Your budget: Medjet is an added annual expense, usually in addition to travel insurance. However, unlike travel insurance, you pay a member subscription rather than a premium, so your costs are predictable. 

Ideal users and scenarios

If you identify with one of the following traveler profiles, consider Medjet. 

• Travelers with pre-existing conditions: Since the standard travel insurance policy may have exclusions for pre-existing conditions, Medjet could be a beneficial addition. 
• Frequent travelers: Medjet is ideal for frequent travelers, as the annual membership provides comprehensive coverage for multiple trips.
• Travelers visiting remote destinations: If you're visiting a destination with limited access to quality medical facilities (e.g., remote or less-developed areas), Medjet provides the peace of mind that you'll receive timely and quality health care.

Medjet membership enrollment and utilization

How to enroll in medjet.

You can enroll in Medjet by completing an online application or speaking to a representative at 800-527-7478. The company will ask for membership type, term, type of travel, number of days abroad per trip, and desired plan. In addition, be prepared to provide personal information like your name, contact information, date of birth, and address. After answering those questions, you'll receive a quote on the spot

Accessing assistance during travel

You'll need to call Medjet's emergency hotline for assistance and coverage. They are available 24/7. 

For a medical emergency, contact a Medjet representative at 800-527-7478 (or worldwide collect at 205-595-6626). According to Medjet's website. You'll need to provide the following information: 

• Your name and telephone number
• The policyholder's name
• Location (city, country)
• Brief description of your medical condition
• Your hospital's telephone number
• Attending physician or medical professional name and telephone number.

For a security emergency, call 619-717-8549 (worldwide collect) and have the following information available:

• Your name and telephone number 
• Location (city, country).

Medjet conclusion and final recommendations

Assessing the value of medjet.

Medjet doesn't replace travel insurance or international health insurance. Instead, it fills the coverage gaps and provides a service those policies do not cover. In most instances, medical transport is nice and can drastically reduce stress. But it's not generally medically necessary, except in extreme circumstances.

However, if you're a frequent traveler traveling to a destination with limited medical facilities or have a pre-existing condition, comprehensive medical transport services may be important to you. In that case, Medjet may be a valuable addition to your travel insurance policy.

Medjet FAQs

Medjet primarily focuses on medical transport and evacuation services. However, it doesn't cover medical treatment costs. It complements travel insurance, which typically covers those expenses.

Medjet may offer assistance in non-medical emergencies, such as security and crisis response, depending on the membership plan.

Medical evacuations with Medjet are typically determined based on the member's medical condition and the capabilities of the local healthcare facilities.

Medjet can be a beneficial addition to your travel insurance policy, but it's not a complete replacement. It doesn't cover trip cancellations, lost luggage, or medical treatment costs.

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Water Transport and Tourism

• First Online: 01 January 2023

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• M. R. Dileep 10 &
• Francesca Pagliara   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-6332-6313 11  

Part of the book series: Advances in Spatial Science ((ADVSPATIAL))

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Waterborne transport, which refers to the transportation of people or cargo via waterways, is a significant component of tourism. Water tourism represents the use of different types of sailing equipment and appliances for transportation and recreation purposes by visitors. Whether used to transport cargo or passengers, water transport is vital to the successful operations of tourism in many destinations. Water transport is one of the oldest types of transport and has been widely used throughout history.

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M. R. Dileep

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Dileep, M.R., Pagliara, F. (2023). Water Transport and Tourism. In: Transportation Systems for Tourism. Advances in Spatial Science. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-22127-9_11

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