ancient roman tourism

Tourism in Ancient Rome: A Historical Overview

Tourism in Ancient Rome was a significant aspect of the city’s economy and culture. The city attracted travelers from all over the world, and the tourism industry was a crucial source of income for Rome’s citizens. Visitors came to Rome to witness its grandeur, experience its culture, and marvel at its architectural wonders.

The ancient Romans were known for their love of entertainment, and tourism played a vital role in providing entertainment to the masses. The city was home to numerous theaters , amphitheaters, and other venues that hosted various events, including gladiatorial games, chariot races, and theatrical performances. These events were a major attraction for tourists, and they flocked to Rome to witness them firsthand.

Tourism in Ancient Rome was not just limited to entertainment. The city was also famous for its historical landmarks, such as the Colosseum , the Pantheon , and the Roman Forum . These structures were marvels of engineering and architecture, and they continue to fascinate tourists to this day. Rome’s tourism industry was a testament to the city’s grandeur and magnificence, and it played a significant role in shaping the city’s culture and economy.

Historical Overview

During the reign of Augustus (27 BC to 14 AD), Rome experienced a “golden age” of tourism. The city’s population grew rapidly, and it became a center of trade, commerce, and culture. Augustus initiated a number of public works projects, including the construction of roads , aqueducts , and public buildings , which improved the city’s infrastructure and made it more accessible to visitors.  The city’s rich history and cultural heritage were also major draws, with visitors flocking to see the ruins of ancient temples, palaces, and public buildings.

Key Historical Periods

Tourism in Ancient Rome underwent several phases of development, each characterized by different historical and cultural factors. Some of the key periods include:

• The Republic (509-27 BC): During this period, Rome’s tourism industry was focused on religious pilgrimages and political events, such as elections and public assemblies.
• The Empire (27 BC-476 AD): Under the Roman Empire, tourism in Rome became more organized and commercialized, with the development of guidebooks, travel agencies, and lodging facilities.
• Late Antiquity (4th-6th centuries AD): During this period, Rome’s tourism industry declined due to political instability, economic decline, and the rise of Christianity, which led to the closure of many pagan temples and public buildings.

Despite these fluctuations, tourism remained an important part of Ancient Rome’s economy and cultural identity. Today, the city’s many ancient ruins and monuments continue to attract millions of visitors each year, making it one of the most popular tourist destinations in the world.

Travel and Accommodation

In Ancient Rome, travel was made easier by the extensive network of roads built throughout the empire. The Romans were known for their engineering prowess, and their roads were no exception. These roads were made of several layers of materials, including gravel, sand, and cement, which made them durable and able to withstand heavy traffic. The roads were also well-maintained, with regular repairs and upkeep. This made travel faster and more reliable than in other parts of the world at the time. The roads were used not only for trade and military purposes but also for travel and tourism.

Travelers in Ancient Rome had several options for accommodation. Inns were available in most cities and towns along the roads, providing basic lodging and meals for travelers. These inns were often run by families and were a vital part of the hospitality industry in Ancient Rome. The inns were simple but functional, with basic amenities such as beds, tables, and chairs. They were also affordable, making them accessible to a wide range of travelers. Some inns even provided entertainment, such as music and dancing, to make the stay more enjoyable.

In addition to inns, wealthy travelers could also stay in private homes or villas. These were often rented out by the owners and provided a more luxurious and personalized experience. However, they were also much more expensive and only accessible to a small percentage of travelers. Travel and accommodation in Ancient Rome were well-organized and accessible to a wide range of travelers. The extensive road network and the availability of inns made travel faster, safer, and more enjoyable, while private homes and villas provided a more luxurious option for those who could afford it.

Tourism and Economy

Understandably, tourism played a significant role in the economy of Ancient Rome. The city was a popular destination for travelers from all over the world. The tourism industry was a major source of income for the city, and it employed a large number of people.

Tourism brought an increase in trade and commerce in Ancient Rome. The city was a hub for merchants and traders who sold their goods to tourists. The trade and commerce industry was vast, and it included everything from food and drink to souvenirs and luxury items. One of the most significant trade industries in Ancient Rome was the production of souvenirs. Tourists would often purchase items such as pottery, jewelry , and figurines as a reminder of their visit. These items were produced by local artisans and sold in markets throughout the city.

Tourism also had a significant impact on the entertainment industry in Ancient Rome. The city was known for its gladiatorial games, chariot races, and theatrical performances. These events were not only popular among locals but also attracted tourists from all over the world. The entertainment industry was a significant source of income for the city. It employed a large number of people, including actors, musicians, and performers. The events were held in large venues such as the Colosseum and the Circus Maximus , which could accommodate thousands of spectators.

Tourism played a vital role in the economy of Ancient Rome. It brought about an increase in trade and commerce and had a significant impact on the entertainment industry. The city’s popularity as a tourist destination helped to create a vibrant and thriving economy.

Cultural Exchange

The tourism industry in Ancient Rome was not only about sightseeing but also about cultural exchange. Visitors from different parts of the world came to Rome to learn about Roman culture, art, and architecture, and in turn, they brought their own culture and traditions to Rome.

The visitors who came to Rome were influenced by the Roman way of life. They learned about Roman art, literature, philosophy, and engineering. They were amazed by the grandeur of the architectural wonders of Rome. They also learned about Roman law , which was a major influence on the legal systems of many countries.

Travels in the Medieval Period

Religious pilgrimages were also a significant part of tourism in Ancient Rome. People from different parts of the world came to Rome to visit the holy sites of Christianity, such as the catacombs, the Basilica of St. Peter , and the Vatican. The pilgrims brought with them their own religious traditions and practices, which influenced the development of Christianity in Rome.

In general, the cultural exchange that took place during tourism in Ancient Rome was a significant factor in shaping the world as we know it today. It helped to spread knowledge, ideas, and traditions, and it played a crucial role in the development of art, architecture, law, and religion. Also, it benefited Rome economically.

People Also Ask:

Was there tourism in ancient rome.

Tourism is not an invention of modern times. Ancient Romans also liked to travel to health resorts in Greece, to wander the Egyptian pyramids, or to party on the Gulf of Naples. The wealthy Roman patrician Gaius Antonius lies on the terrace of his magnificent villa high above the Gulf of Naples and looks out at the sea.

What was travel like in ancient Rome?

Transportation in Ancient Rome was different from today’s world. They didn’t have cars or airplanes, but they developed an impressive transportation system with highways, horse-drawn chariots, and boats.

Where did Roman emperors holiday?

Pompeii, Stabiae, Herculaneum, and other nearby communities were the year-round vacation destinations of Roman aristocrats. The region’s pleasant climate even persuaded emperors such as Augustus and Tiberius to build imperial villas on the coast of adjacent islands, including beautiful Capri.

Did tourism exist in ancient times?

Herodotus of Halicarnassus is the first known tourist in history. He was a Greek historian and author who described his travels through Asia Minor and the Black Sea in his writings called “The Voyage of the Persian Wars.” His observations make him one of the first travel writers and early tourists. Also, he is known as the father of history.

Why is Rome famous for tourism?

With its unparalleled history, Rome is the third most visited city in Europe and the fourteenth worldwide. It attracts visitors from all over the world who are impatient to discover the city’s impressive monuments and archaeological sites; not to mention its renowned cuisine and its lively atmosphere. The Eternal city really has a lot to offer.

Hello, my name is Vladimir, and I am a part of the Roman-empire writing team.

I am a historian, and history is an integral part of my life.

To be honest, while I was in school, I didn’t like history so how did I end up studying it? Well, for that, I have to thank history-based strategy PC games. Thank you so much, Europa Universalis IV, and thank you, Medieval Total War.

Since games made me fall in love with history, I completed bachelor studies at Filozofski Fakultet Niš, a part of the University of Niš. My bachelor’s thesis was about Julis Caesar. Soon, I completed my master’s studies at the same university.

For years now, I have been working as a teacher in a local elementary school, but my passion for writing isn’t fulfilled, so I decided to pursue that ambition online. There were a few gigs, but most of them were not history-related.

Then I stumbled upon roman-empire.com, and now I am a part of something bigger. No, I am not a part of the ancient Roman Empire but of a creative writing team where I have the freedom to write about whatever I want. Yes, even about Star Wars. Stay tuned for that.

Anyway, I am better at writing about Rome than writing about me. But if you would like to contact me for any reason, you can do it at [email protected]. Except for negative reviews, of course. 😀

Kind regards,

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Essential Ancient Sites to Visit in Rome

The glories of ancient Rome are easily accessible to the visitor. Some sites can be visited for free while others are part of Rome Passes and Cards . Most ancient sites are in Rome's historic center so you can visit several places in one day. Even if you don't have time to take an in-depth look, just walking by some of these places is incredible and gives you an overview of ancient Rome's history.

The Colosseum of Rome

TripSavvy / Taylor McIntyre

Ancient Rome's huge amphitheater, holding up to 55,000 people, was built by Emperor Vespasian in 80 A.D. and was the scene of many deadly gladiatorial and wild animal fights. Today you may see men dressed in gladiatorial costume as you walk between the Colosseum and the nearby Arch of Constantine, built in 315 A.D. On Sundays, the Via dei Fori Imperiali leading to the Colosseum is closed to traffic so it's a great place for a stroll (if you don't mind the souvenir vendors).

Ticket lines can be long but there are several ways to buy Colosseum tickets faster including buying a Colosseum and Roman Forum pass online from Select Italy or booking a tour .

The Pantheon

TripSavvy / Stella Levantesi 

Rome's Pantheon, the temple of all the gods, was built between 118-125 A.D. by Emperor Hadrian. In the 7th century it was made into a church by early Christians and now is lined with tombs. Go inside to see the spectacular dome. Admission is free. The Pantheon is the best-preserved building of ancient Rome and today is surrounded by a pleasant and lively piazza, a nice place to sit in the evening and enjoy a drink. A good nearby restaurant is Armando's, on a street coming off the piazza.

Roman Forum

The ancient Roman Forum is a huge complex of ruined temples, basilicas, and arches. It was the ceremonial, legal, social, and business center of ancient Rome (The food stalls and brothels were removed in the second century B.C.). To get a good view, walk up the Capitoline Hill behind the museums. Give yourself at least 1-2 hours to wander around, then continue up to the Palatine Hill, also included in the ticket.

The Palatine Hill

TripSavvy / Christopher Larson

The emperors and aristocrats of ancient Rome lived on the Palatine Hill starting in the first century B.C. The Domus Flavia and Domus Augustana, built in the first century A.D., where the official residence of the emperors for over 300 years. Admission also includes the Palatine Museum, the Roman Forum, and Colosseum.

The Capitoline Hill Museums

Above the Roman Forum, the Capitoline Hill was Rome's symbolic center and held the Temple of Jupiter. Today there are two museums, the oldest public museums in the world, the Palazzo Nuovo, with Greek and Roman sculptures, and the Palazzo dei Conservatori, with art galleries, sculptures, and frescoes. One ticket gives you admission to both. Just like in ancient Rome, the hill still has the best view of Rome's center.

Piazza Navona

Originally built as a stadium in the first century for athletic contests and chariot races, Piazza Navona is now lined with luxurious cafes and is the home to three lavish Baroque fountains. The much-touted ice-cream dessert, tartufo , is said to have originated here and you can still try it in the cafes as a splurge.

Baths of Diocletian

The Baths of Diocletian, once covering 32 acres, were the largest public baths or thermae in ancient Rome. Although much of the original structure has been destroyed, remains of the baths are now part of the National Roman Museum. Several painted tombs have been moved and reconstructed inside the baths. They can be seen when you visit the baths, open every day except Monday. The baths can be visited with the Four museums ticket and Rome archeology card.

Baths of Caracalla

At the foot of the Aventine hill are the monumental ruins of the Baths of Caracalla, used from the 2nd to 6th century A.D. Taking a bath was a social event for the people of ancient Rome and the huge complex could hold up to 1600 bathers! Besides baths, they held an array of facilities such as a gym, art galleries, gardens, and shops selling food and drinks.

Trajan's Market

Thought to be the world's oldest shopping mall, the arcades in Trajan's Market are now believed by many to be administrative offices for Emperor Trajan. The shops and apartments were built in a multi-level structure and you can visit several of the levels. Highlights include delicate marble floors and the remains of a library. The Museum of the Imperial Forums houses a wealth of artifacts from all of ancient Rome's forums.

Roman Houses Under Saints John and Paul Church

Under the Church of Saints John and Paul are excavations of Roman buildings, including what's believed to be the house of the two saints and an early Christian worship site. The Roman buildings were discovered during excavations to find the tombs of John and Paul and are now open to the public along with a small museum.

Via Appia Antica and Catacombs

The Via Appia was once the major road to ancient Rome with construction starting in 312 B.C. The Appian Way is now a 10-mile long archaeological park, lined with ruins of tombs and monuments. A good way to visit is by bike, although you may also enjoy walking it. Some of the catacombs, burial places of the early Christians, are open for public tours - check for the time of the English tour when you arrive.

The Roman Guy offers a good guided Appian Way Catacomb tour that includes a tour under San Clemente Church and transportation.

Ostia Antica

Although not actually in Rome, the ruins of the ancient Roman port of Ostia Antica, easily accessible from Rome on public transportation, are well worth a visit. It's a huge complex and you can easily spend several hours wandering around the old streets, shops, and houses. You should plan at least a half day for this trip.

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30+ Ancient Roman Ruins & Archaeological Sites In Rome

If you’re a history buff, you’ll definitely want to check out my guide to 30 must-see Roman ruins, archaeological sites, and historic landmarks in Rome, Italy. These attractions are some of the best ways to experience the city’s rich history.

Rome is a city filled with magnificent ancient sites and can be overwhelming to navigate. Essentially, the city itself is a sprawling outdoor museum that transports you to a bygone era at every turn.

With so many incredible ruins to explore, you’ll want to plan your visit carefully to make the most of your time.

Many of these Roman ruins tell great stories: Roman armies vanquishing foes, heros cementing legacies, and dedications to gods to seek their protection.

If you listen closely, you can hear Julius Caesar and his cohorts speechifying, promenading, and leading victory parades through the Roman Forum.

READ : History of the Rise and Fall of Ancient Rome

2,000 years ago, Rome was synonymous with “civilization.” You were either civilized or you were a barbarian to be defeated.

To attest to their then-civilized nature, ancient Romans left a raft of fascinating ancient buildings, temples, forums, and sculptures.

Some are hulking ruins. Others are well preserved and offer a secret peak into Rome’s tumultuous past and controversial rulers.

Let’s tour the 31 most interesting ruins in Rome that should be on your Italy bucket list .

Roman Ruins And Archeological Sites In Rome Italy

Here are my picks for the 30+ must visit Roman ruins in Rome.

1. Domus Aurea: Nero’s Underground Golden House

Nero’s Golden House was once the grandest building on earth.

It’s not your typical Roman tourist site, and is an often overlooked hidden gem in Rome. Domus Aurea is an excavation in progress, one of Rome’s best Roman ruins and archaeological sites.

Built by Emperor Nero between 64-68 AD in the heart of imperial Rome, the sprawling property covered up to 300 acres. The facade and walls were adorned with frescos, gold leaf, glass mosaics, pearls, and marble. In natural light, it had a golden hue.

READ : History of the Roman Emperors

But little of this wealth survived Nero’s rule. As Nero’s extravagance and tyranny spun out of control, rivals condemned both his reign and his emblematic palace.

For a decade after his death, the palace was looted, destroyed, and filled in with brick. But the vivid frescos by the artist Famulus couldn’t be pried off the walls.

At the end of the 15th century, the Domus Aurea was discovered by accident when a young man fell into a crevice. To his surprise, he found himself surrounded by paintings.

At first, the palace ruins were thought to be caves or grottos. Artists like Michelangelo and Raphael flocked to see the ancient frescos.

In the 18th century, proper excavation of the Golden House began. Now, you can visit (with a hard hat) on the weekends. The crown jewel is the Octagonal Room, which represented a revolution in architectural style and technique. Here’s my compete guide to Domus Aurea .

Thanks to YouTube, you can also take a virtual tour of the ruins of Domus Aurea, still an excavation in progress, and see how it would’ve looked looked almost 2,000 years ago in ancient Rome.

Click here to book a guided tour of Domus Aurea. Click here to book the virtual reality experience.

2. Domus Transitoria, Nero’s First Palace

Before there was Domus Aurea, there was Domus Transitoria. Nero’s first palace was built between 60 and 64 BC. The palace had a short life. It was destroyed in the great fire of Rome in 64 BC.

Like Domus Aurea, Domus Transitoria was a massive and lavishly decorated palace, connecting the Palatine Hill and Esquiline Hill. It was dubbed the Transit House.

According to Seutonius, Domus Transitoria was characterized by all the pomp, gold, and luxury one typically associates with grandiose Neronian architecture.

Domus Transitoria was just opened in April 2019. You enter and descend a staircase to inspect the site underground.

Virtual reality headsets bring the dank place to life, allowing visitors to see vignettes of the palace in its former glory.

You can take this YouTube virtual tour to see the ruins and a glimpse of what the palace looked like in ancient Rome.

3. Pantheon: Rome’s Most Perfect “Ruin”

Without a doubt, the Pantheon is the best preserved building from ancient Rome.

You’d don’t have to wrinkle your brow or struggle to conceptualize anything, as with many ruins. It’s all before you.

The Pantheon was a temple dedicated to all of the gods. It was originally built by Augustus’ right hand man, Marcus Agrippa in 27 BC.

The pediment still proclaims that “Marcus Agrippa, three times consul made this.” But Agrippa’s version was destroyed by fire.

In 120 AD, the Pantheon was rebuilt by Hadrian. The well traveled emperor, a true Grecophile, reimagined it as an oversized Greek temple.

It has 40 foot tall Corinthian granite columns from Egypt, a pediment, and portico. It was considered a masterpiece of engineering and mathematical precision.

The Pantheon’s most emblematic feature is its perfect unsupported spherical dome. At the time, it was a major architectural breakthrough. The dome became the model for Michelangelo’s dome for St. Peter’s Basilica and for Brunelleschi’s dome for Florence Cathedral .

The dome is made of lightweight concrete, a Roman invention. The concrete gets increasingly thinner as the height of the dome increased.

The coffered ceiling also reduced the weight without compromising the dome’s structural integrity. At the top is the oculus, or eye, which is the Pantheon’s only source of natural light.

After the fall of Rome, the Pantheon became a Christian church, which helped save it from looting at first. But eventually the interior, marble, and gold were all looted in the 7th century, although the marble floor is recreated.

The Pantheon is filled with tombs of important Romans, including the artist Raphael.

You can take a 360 tour of the Pantheon here . And here’s a fantastic video from Smarthistory with shots of the Pantheon and an explanation of its importance.

Here’s my  complete guide To the Pantheon . Click  here  to book a guided tour of the Pantheon.

4. Baths of Diocletian: Largest Baths in Ancient Rome

Rome took its baths seriously. They were places to swim, bathe, and socialize. The Baths of Diocletian were built by Emperor Maximian to honor his co-Emperor Diocletian.

Constructed between 298-306, the Baths of Diocletian were Rome’s largest bath complex. They were meant to surpass the Baths of Caracalla and could accommodate 3,000 citizens.

Ironically, Diocletian never saw the baths. Diocletian was a colorful man with a big ego, who thought he was a living god. Having successfully divided the empire to make it easier to manage, he governed in the east or camped out in his swishy palac e in Split Croatia .

The baths were built using the typical bath design of Roman times — with a frigidarium (cold), tepidarium (warm) and caldarium (hot), large bathing chambers, and gymnasiums.

There were smaller rooms for private bathing, changing, and meetings. On the ruins of the frigidarium, Michelangelo was commissioned to build a church, the Basilica of Santa Maria deli Angeli e dei Martiri.

Today, the Baths of Diocletian are part of the National Roman Museum. The baths aren’t particularly conveniently located. They’re in northeast Rome near the Termini station. The upside is that you can experience ancient ruins without the crowds.

Here’s a good YouTube video guide of the site. You can also explore the baths in Google Art & Culture .

Click here to book a skip the line ticket and guided tour for the baths.

5. Roman Forum: the Epicenter of Ancient Rome

I advise having a guided tour for the Roman Forum . It’s vast and there’s not much signage. It will be difficult to divine what you’re looking at without a guide to decipher the lovely rubble.

The forum is a rectangular valley running from Arch of Titus to the Capitoline Hill. The main road is the Via Sacre.

The forum was the beating heart of Rome, the seat of power, and its central showpiece. It was a grandiose district consisting of white temples, grand basilicas, and vibrant public spaces.

The Forum was the scene of political upheavals, funerals, and triumphant parades. Before the Colosseum was built, it even hosted gladiatorial battles.

Stroll by the Basilica of Constantine, the Temple and House of the Vestal Virgins, the Temple of Venus and Rome, the Basilica of Constantine, and the 3 columns of the Temple of Castor and Pollux.

You’ll also find the ruins of the Temple of Caesar . It was built by Augustus after Caesar’s assassination. Inside, in a small apse area, is a mound of stone and dirt covered with coins and flowers. This is the altar holding Caesar’s ashes and marks his grave.

You can take a virtual tour of the forum on Google Arts & Culture , with almost 300 different items to eyeball. You can also take a 360 tour on 360 Cities or a virtual walking tour with Pro Walks.

Most tickets include entry to the all the imperial ruins — Colosseum, Palatine Hill, and the Roman Forum. There are plenty tour options you can choose from.

They all vary slightly in duration and what you see. So pick one that best suits your sightseeing agenda.

I’ve done the fourth and seventh one on this list and loved both tours. 

• skip the line entry tickets to all 3 sites
• tickets + a 2 hour guided tour for all 3 sites
• 3 hour guided tour and entry to all 3 sites
• tickets & tour of all 3 site s + underground Colosseum access
• Colosseum tour with entry tickets for Palatine Hill and the Roman Forum
• 4 hour private day tour of Ancient Rome
• skip the line private guided tour with an art historian
• skip the line private tour of all 3 sites + the underground Colosseum

6. Colosseum: Into the Gladiators’ Lair

Formally named the Flavian Amphitheater, the Colosseum has stood in Rome for almost 2,000 years. It’s the most instantly recognizable monument from the classical world.

Despite the ravages of time, the Colosseum is an incredibly well-preserved piece of Rome’s fascinating history.

Emperor Vespasian began constructing the Colosseum in 72 AD. It was finished by his son Titus in 80 AD. Domitian subsequently added the hypogeum, or basement.

In its glory days, the Colosseum was a vivid white with painted trim and frescoed hallways. There were monumental statues of the Greek and Roman gods in the arches of the middle two stories. The top story had a retractable canvas awning to shade spectators.

The Colosseum hosted the popular “games,” a form of ancient theater re-creating far flung lands and mythological themes for the masses. There were many variations.

The spectacles pitted men against men, men against beasts, and beasts against beasts. There was a menagerie of beasts — lions, giraffes, crocodiles, dogs, rhinos, elephants, etc.

The best way to visit the Colosseum, and go behind the scenes, is on an Underground Colosseum Tour. You’ll visit parts not accessed by the standard tickets, like the hypogeum and third ring.

You can tour the Colosseum on Google Arts & Culture , where there are over 200 photos. You can take a virtual walking tour of the Colosseum on its official website. Or take a 360 virtual tour on Air Pano.

Here’s my  complete guide to the Colosseum , with must know tips for visiting. You can book  guided tour of the Colosseum   or a tour that also includes the  underground gladiator area of the Colosseum .

7. Theater Of Marcellus: A Romantic Facade

Located in the Jewish Ghetto neighborhood of Rome, the Theater of Marcellus is easily overlooked by most tourists. But I walked past it everyday on the way home to my Air Bnb in Trastevere on my last visit.

The monument isn’t far from the gigantic white Monument of Victor Emanuel. And it looks like a mini-Colosseum.

The Theater of Marcellus is truly ancient. Julius Caesar launched construction and his heir Augustus inaugurated it in 12 BC. It could seat 20,0000. As you walk around it, you’ll see both Doric and Ionic columns. There are ruins piled up all around it.

Unfortunately, you can only admire the exterior and walk along the amphitheater edge. In the 4th century BC, the theater started to crumble. Thereafter, it was used as a stone quarry and repurposed, like so much else, for other buildings in Rome. In the summer, there are sometimes concerts outside.

Today, the Theater of Marcellus is a building that’s half private and half public. If you look at the photo, you’ll see luxury apartments lining the top.

8. Augustus’ Mausoleum: Family Tomb of Julio-Claudian Dynasty

Augustus’ Mausoleum is the family tomb of Rome’s first emperor. As mentioned above, Augustus ruled between 63 BC and 14 AD and was the great nephew and heir of Julius Caesar.

His mausoleum was built around 28 BC after the Battle of Actium. It was inspired by the mausoleum of Alexander the Great in Egypt.

The mausoleum was a burial place for Augustus, his wife Livia, and the other Julio-Claudian emperors. Not much has survived from its former grandeur and it’s original appearance is unknown. The mausoleum is closed to the public.

Though it was in ruinous condition, a 6.5 million euro restoration began in 2016 and was is only partially complete as of the summer of 2023. 50% of the structure is long gone — pillaged and destroyed.

The renovated monument opened to the public in March 2021 with a 3D experience, much like Domus Aurea. Hopefully, excavations will be fully complete in the summer of 2024.

Click here to book a skip the line ticket. Here’s a YouTube video of Rome’s mayor showing off the restored mausoleum.

9. Ostia Antica: an Alternative to Pompeii

Founded in 4th century BC, Ostia Antica is an ancient harbor town about 40 minutes outside Rome. It’s a pretty adorable town too, with warm orange stone buildings.

In ancient Rome, Ostia served as a naval base. Later, it became important commercially. This was where food and grain supplies arrived to feed Roman citizens.

There are some impressive preserved ruins. It’s similar to Pompeii — the excavation of an entire ancient city.

You get to wander around the ancient town at will.

Along the way, you’ll see a necropolis, an amphitheater, ancient temples and gates, the Baths of Neptune, statues, mosaic floors, and the forum. Mosaics were used to inform illiterate Romans about the purpose of a given building — tavern, baths, brothel, etc.

Click here to book a guided walking tour. You can also book a half day guided tour from Rome .

You can explore Ostia Antica virtually on Google Arts & Culture .

10. Baths of Caracalla, Termi di Caracalla

The Baths of Caracalla are another must visit Roman ruin in Rome. The baths were inaugurated by Emperor Caracalla in 216. The massive complex is one of Rome’s best preserved ancient sites.

Construction began in 206 AD, under the direction of Emperor Septimius Severus. His son, Caracalla, finished it 10 years later, after killing his brothers to seize sole power.

The baths could accommodate 1600 people. The original brick walls are still standing, a towering shell. They were once covered in stucco and marble. But that was long ago carried off by looters.

The sculptures and mosaics from the Baths of Caracalla have been moved to museums. The famous Belvedere Torso is now in the Vatican Museums .

The Farnese family pillfered and excavated the baths. The Farnese Bull and the Farnese Hercules are in Naple’s Archaeological Museum. Two fountain shaped bathtubs are now in the Piazza Farnese in Rome.

The large rooms at each end of the structure were used for exercise. In between was a long pool flanked with changing rooms and decorated with mosaics.

You can still see the black and white floor mosaics. To keep cool in the summer, the Romans played games in the pool on tables.

Tourist can even visit the underground tunnels of the bath complex, where slaves kept the baths going. You can also don virtual reality googles.

Here’s my complete guide to the Baths of Caracalla . You can book a  small group or private tour  of the baths. You can also book a  tour that includes both the baths and the Circus Maximus . You can also visit the baths with the  Roma Pass . 

Every summer since 2014, the Baths of Caracalla are the backdrop for open air night at the opera performances . You can read about it and see shots virtually on Google Arts & Culture . You can also take a 4D tour of the Baths of Caracalla on Rome’s Coop Culture website.

11. House of Augustus, Palatine Hill

For nearly 2,000 years, the House of Augustus on Palatine Hill lay hidden. Archaeologists only discovered the ancient home in the 1960s.

The House of Augustus marked the transformation of Palatine Hill from a residential area into an imperial seat.

The House of Augustus is located on the most sacred area of the Palatine Hill, near the symbols of Roman power.

It was built near the Temple of Apollo (which Augustus could access by ramp from his peristyle) and on top of the sacred Cave of Lupercal, where the She Wolf of Rome nursed the twins Romulus and Remus.

Comprising two levels, the House of Augustus served as Augustus’ primary residence during his reign. It was arranged around two courtyards, linked by an open promenade. Emperor Domitian, a more megalomaniacal sort, demolished much of it when he built his massive palace.

The western end of the house held the domestic rooms. The eastern end held the public reception rooms. By far the most elegant room is the Emperor’s Study, where Augustus burned the midnight oil.

Protected behind glass, the walls are beautifully decorated with stylized winged obelisks, gryphons, and floral elements. The colors are bold — green, black, green, and yellow.

The House of Augustus is most celebrated for its lavish red Pompeian frescoes. They’re the best preserved frescos from ancient Rome, superior even to those in Pompeii. They’re the real reason you should visit the House of Augustus.

Most of the frescos are executed in the Second Pompeian Style, called the “Architectural Style.” It began in Pompeii, became the fashion, and was then adopted by Augustus.

The style emphasized architectural features and illusionistic compositions. Artists used columns, faux marble blocks, and stoas to frame fantastic images. The use of vanishing points made the walls seem three dimensional.

You can only visit Domus Augustana with a special ticket and a reservation. It’s not included in the standard ticket giving you access to Palantine Hill.

Access is via small groups of 20 on a 75 minute guided tour, with specific time slots on certain days. There are informative audiovisual and laser displays.

Click here to pre-book a guided tour of the House of Augustus. Here’s a YouTube video on the House of Augustus and the House of Livia (discussed below). Here’s my complete guide to the House of Augustus .

12. House of Livia, Palatine Hill

If you book a special ticket to see the House of Augustus, you’ll also see the House of Livia. Livia was Augustus’ third wife.

When Augustus fell in love with the beautiful young woman, they both divorced their respective spouses to marry. Livia’s son from her first marriage, Tiberius, became Augustus’ heir and the second emperor of Rome.

First excavated in 1839, Livia’s House was attributed to her when her honorific name was found stamped on a lead pipe. Built in the first century BC, Livia’s house was actually a bit larger and grander than her husband’s house.

The best preserved section is the atrium and three adjoining rooms. The central room (the tablinum) was the most richly decorated. Known as the Room of Polyphemus, it had mythological frescos showing Mercury kidnapping the nymph Io.

In the dining room, there was a stunning garden fresco that made the walls almost disappear. The fresco has flowering trees, blossoms, and flying birds in all varieties of nature.

The colors are delicate in faded purple, blue, yellow, and white.

The original of this fresco was moved to the Palazzo Massimo all Terme, one of Rome’s best museums . A replica is now in the House of Livia on Palatine Hill.

Here’s Smarthistory’s video about the magnificent garden fresco.

13. Domitian’s Palace, Palatine Hill

Domitian’s Palace is a Roman ruin that was built circa 81 AD by Emperor Domitian. He hired master architect Rabirius to create a massive imperial palace.

It was so grand that one poet remarked that it “made Jupiter jealous.” It was the residence of Rome’s emperors for three centuries.

Unlike previous emperors, Domitian wasn’t interested in public architecture. A megalomaniac, he viewed himself as “lord and god” and wanted the public to know it.

The palace contained many large spaces, including a basilica, receptions rooms, an audience hall, a stadium, a sunken garden, peristyle courts, and baths.

The part of the palace above the Circus Maximus was added by Emperor Severus. The Circus Maximus was a long oblong course for chariot racing. If the gladiator show at the Colosseum was sold out, the citizens would come here for entertainment.

Inside, the palace was decorated with reflective surfaces, probably white marble or selenium. A paranoid Domitian wanted to be able to spot any potential enemies and see what people were up to.

Each public room had apses, where Domitian could sit on a throne and be worshipped.

14. Arch of Constantine: Symbol of Christianity

The Arch of Constantine is a triumphal arch dedicated to Emperor Constantine the Great. It represents a seismic shift in history, when the western world became Christian.

Until 312 AD, Rome was a pagan empire. But a small, obscure, and previously persecuted sect was becoming more popular, Christian monotheists.

In 312, Emperor Constantine saw a vision of a cross in the sky. The next day, he defeated his rival Maxentius, becoming sole emperor. His first task as an agent of change was to legalize christianity.

The Arch of Constantine is on the Via Triumphalis in Rome, between the Colosseum and the Roman Forum. It’s approximately 21 meters high and 25 meters wide.

It’s decorated mostly with recycled carvings from other buildings and from different times. Because of this, some art historians have criticized the arch as poor craftsmanship.

But Constantine deliberately wanted reliefs from other great eras. To unscore this point, there are statutes of the great emperors on the arch, putting Constantine in good company. As a usurper himself, it was important to also be a symbol of reverence.

You can take a 360 tour of the Arch of Constantine here .

15. Arch of Titus

This intricate triumphal arch marks the entry into the Roman Forum. Emperor Domtian built it to celebrate his brother Emperor Titus’ destruction of Jerusalem in 71 AD.

The reliefs inside feature scenes of the Roman troops sacking Jerusalem, soldiers carrying bodies and taking items from the Temple in Jerusalem, and the first depiction of a menorah. The arch was intended to exalt the mythological status of the Flavian dynasty.

It was a terrible monument for Jews. In antiquity, Jews refused to walk under the arch because of it subject matter.

You would think the monument was anti-Semitic. But at the time, it was just business as usual — Rome putting down a rebellion, which was more about taxes than religious differences.

You can take a 360 virtual tour of the Arch of Titus.

16. Castle Sant’Angelo: Fortress Museum

Castle Sant’Angelo is also known as Hadrian’s Mausoleum. Hadrian built it on the banks of the Tiber River in 139. It’s a magnificently preserved ruin from Ancient Rome.

Hadrian also erected the Bridge of Angels, which connected central Rome to his mausoleum. The bridge is now lined with 10 angels, designed by Bernini and commissioned by Pope Clement IX. Each statue holds an object of Christ’s passion.

READ : Guide To the Bernini Trail in Rome

The cylindrical castle was richly decorated. Originally, it was faced with travertine marble, pilasters, and bronze. By the 5th century, the mausoleum was converted into a miltary fortress.

It was renamed Castle Sant’Angelo in the 5th century. Legend holds that the Archangel Michael appeared above the castle, sheathed his sword, and magically put an end to the plague.

In the 14th century, Castle Sant’Angelo was turned into a papal residence. A covered corridor connected it to St. Peter’s Basilica. Popes fled there during sieges.

In the 15th century, at the direction of the notorious Borgia pope, Alessandro VI, the castle became battle ready. He also installed sumptuous papal apartments decorated with frescos by Pinturicchio, who also decorated the Borgia Rooms in the Vatican Museums .

In 1536, a marble and bronze statue of Archangel Micheal was perched on top. There are gorgeous 360 views of Rome and St. Peter’s Basilica from the Terrace of the Angel. The museum also has a bar/coffee shop with splendid views.

You can take a virtual 360 tour of the Castle Sant’ Angelo here or check out this BBC documentary on the famous Roman monument.

Here’s my complete guide to the Castle Sant’Angelo , which is almost one of Rome’s hidden gems since so few venture inside.

In high season, you may want to book a skip the line ticket . Click here to book a guided tour with fast track access.

17. Mouth of Truth: Roman Lie Detector

This sculpture is a Pavonazzzo marble mask called la Bocca della Verita, the Mouth of Truth . It has the ambiguous face of an unknown pagan god with an open maw. It’s located in the portico of Santa Maria Church.

Legend holds that, in medieval times, the carved mask was a device for determining whether a person was telling the truth.

Suspicious people were brought to the sculpture. They took an oath and put their hand inside the gaping mouth while being interrogated.

If the detainee was being truthful, the mouth wouldn’t moved and you could keep your hand. If you were lying, the mouth would slam shut and bite off the hand.

The legend became famous via Hollywood. In the 1953 film Roman Holiday , the Mouth of Truth was used as a storytelling device.

I’m not sure this sculpture is worth a trip in and of itself. It’s been theorized to be a possible drain cover or fountain decoration. And the line for testing your hand can be long.

18. Trajan’s Market: World’s First Shopping Mall

Trajan’s Markets is a large complex of ruins that was part of Trajan’s Forum. This forum was the largest and most advanced of six imperial forums in Rome, as befitting Rome’s most popular and powerful emperor dubbed the “best leader.”

Trajan’s Market was built in the 2nd century AD by Trajan’s favorite architect, Apollodorus of Damascus. It’s affectionately called the world’s “first shopping mall.”

Trajan’s Market was a dense complex. It was once 6 stories with 150 shops and offices, set into the side of Quirinal Hill.

The structure is remarkable. It shows that Romans didn’t just build with columns and pediments. Powered by concrete, this urban structure was light filled, with windows and atriums.

Click here to book an entry ticket. You can also take an amazing virtual tour of Trajan’s Market from your couch.

19. Trajan’s Column: War Diary

Trajan’s Column was part of Trajan’s Forum. It’s probably the best preserved victory column in Rome, though it’s similar to the column for Marcus Aurelius in Piazza Colonna. Built in 113 AD, the column was a tour de force of Roman propaganda art.

The column celebrated Trajan’s defeat over the Dacians. It depicts the campaigns he fought against them, the fortifications that were built, the Dacian themselves, and their weaponry.

The column consists of 22 layers, one yard each, spiraled around a 125 foot high column. The emperor’s ashes were buried in the foundation after his death.

You wouldn’t know it, but there’s a staircase inside that takes you up to the top. Atop the column, there’s a statue of St. Peter. During the Renaissance, it replaced a statue of Trajan.

Here’s a great video showing and explaining Trajan’s Forum.

20. Catacombs of Priscilla

Dating back almost 2,000 years, the Catacombs of Priscilla are a series of catacombs built by early Christians. Known as the “Queen of the Catacombs” since antiquity, the catacombs house the bones of early popes and many Christian martyrs.

The Catacombs of Priscilla are considered one of Rome’s most interesting underground sites, hidden away under Villa Ada Park.

After five years of conservation and restoration, the Priscilla Catacombs opened to the public in 2018. Lasers were used to clean the religious frescoes on the walls.

Click here to book a guided tour of the catacombs. A new function on Google Maps allows you to take a limited tour of the of the vast complex. You can also see the frescos on this Smarthistory video .

21. Hadrian’s Villa: an Easy Day Trip From Rome

Built in 118-133 A.D, Hadrian’s Villa is an important archeological complex. It’s the largest and most spectacular villa of ancient Rome, three times the size of Pompeii. Hadrian’s Villa is an easy day trip from Rome , just 30 minute away.

It reflected the power and glory of ancient Rome and one of that world’s most important leaders, Emperor Hadrian. And it was designed by Hadrian himself, just like the Pantheon.

Hadrian’s Villa is a sprawling luxury palace. It was designed on a vast scale to reflect the power, elegance, and excess of the Roman Empire.

Though it’s called a “villa,” Hadrian’s Villa is more accurately a miniature Rome that covers nearly 300 acres. It’s dotted with 30 large structures — palaces, libraries, baths, living quarters, dining pavilions, and sculptural gardens.

Hadrian’s Villa was originally intended as a secret escape from the political complexities of a bustling Rome.

But Hadrian loved his villa so much that he moved in and used it as the seat of government in his last decade, much like Louis XIV governed France from Versailles.

Here’s a great Smarthistory virtual tour of Hadrian’s Villa. While you’re in Tivoli visiting Hadrian’s Villa, you should also visit the Renaissance era Villa d’Este .

Here’s my complete guide To Hadrian’s Villa . Click here to book a wonderful guided day tour from Rome.

22. Arch of Janus

The Arch of Janus is the only surviving four way marble arch in Rome. It’s close to the Mouth of Truth, if you’re visiting that. Built in the 4th century, the arch has four facades. It was supposedly built from pieces of other ruins.

The Arch of Janus is built over an ancient drain to the Tiber River. It’s thought to have been a boundary marker, rather than a triumphal arch.

The Arch of Janus now stands in front of the Palazzo Rhinococros. In 2012, the building was purchased and restored by Fendi heiress, Alda Fendi. It’s the newest hotspot/art space in Rome, with cultural and residential spaces that opened in 2018.

A resin sculpture of an endangered white rhino now stands guard in the square, symbolizing the union of the old and the new. Inside the palazzo art gallery, there’s a Michelango sculpture, Crouching Boy, on loan.

23. Forum of Augustus

The Forum of Augustus is one of the Imperial Fora from Ancient Rome. This forum was built after a young Gaius Octavius defeated Brutus and Cassius in the Battle of Philippi. Octavius was avenging the murder of Julis Caesar.

Before the battle, Octavius vowed that, if he won, he would build a temple to Mars Ultor, which translates to the Avenger. After winning the battle, Octavius kept his promise.

He located his forum next to Caesar’s. At the center was the Temple of Mars Ultor. The long sides of the forum sported colonnades.

The once richly decorated Hall of the Colossus held a colossal statue of the Genius of Augustus. Remains of the statue are in the Museum of the Imperial Fora.

There is also the remains of the Great Wall toward the Suburra. The wall was intended to protect the forum from an overpopulated part of Rome subject to frequent fire. It’s one of the most impressive ruins in the Imperial Fora.

The Temple of Mars Ultor once held colossal statues of Mars and Venus, linking Augustus with the gods. Archaeologists think there may have been a third statue depicting a deified Julius Caesar.

In general, the forum functioned as a military, administrative, and political center. It was a gallery of statues and place to hold important ceremonies.

It was also a place for Senate deliberation. Military commanders would make sacrifices to Mars before going off to battle.

24. House of the Knights of Rhodes

The House of the Knights of Rhodes is perched right above the Forum of Augustus. It’s a little known hidden gem in Rome .

This impressive building, known as the House of the Knights of Rhodes, was built in the 13th century by the Knights of Rhodes. It’s been controlled by the Knights of Malta since 1946.

The building features a massive five-arched loggia, which was once used by the pope to receive blessings from the citizens while overlooking the city.

If you’re interested in visiting, note that the House of the Knights of Rhodes is only open to the public by reservation on Tuesdays and Thursdays. Inside, you’ll have the chance to see several interesting rooms, including the Hall of Honor, the Byzantine Hall, the Sala della Loggetta, and the Palatine Chapel, which is dedicated to St. John the Baptist, the patron saint of the knights.

To catch a glimpse of the house from the outside, head to Via dei Fori Imperiali, which offers an excellent vantage point.

25. Church of Santa Costanza

This church is traditionally identified as the mausoleum of Constantina, the daughter of the Emperor Constantine. It was likely built by Constantine at the behest of his daughter.

But, after excavations in 1992, some historians speculate that the mausoleum may have been built 30 years later by Emperor Julian for his wife Helena. It officially became a church in the 13th century.

This 4th century mausoleum is considered a fine example of early Christian architecture. It is a circular brick rotunda covered by a dome with a vestibule porch.

Inside, 12 pairs of Corinthian columns are arranged in a ring. 12 clerestory windows that let light into the interior.

The mausoleum was once elaborately decorated. Originally, the cupola, vault, and niches were covered with early Christian mosaics.

You can still see some in the vault and several niches. They were restored in 1840.

26. Forum Boarium

The other Roman forums get all the love, and so they should. Whereas these famous forums are named for emperors, the Forum Boarium is named … for cattle.

The forum is a Roman ruin that was once the true commercial heart of Ancient Rome. It was the working man’s forum where the docks were located.

The most notable buildings on this forum are the Temple of Hercules (shown above) and the Temple of Portunus.

The Temple of Hercules is the oldest surviving marble building in Rome. Hercules, of course, was the legendary hero of superhuman strength. The Mouth of Truth was likely once located in this temple.

Portunus was the god of gateways, locks and livestock. He might not be the most glamorous god of the Roman pantheon. But he did his job well, granting good luck to the all important merchants.

27. Aurelian Walls

The Aurelian Walls in Rome are the biggest, but most neglected, ruins from Ancient Rome. 

The walls date from the 3rd century. They were 12 miles long and 26 feet high, with 14 gates and 380 watch towers. 

The Aurelian Walls take their name from Emperor Aurelian, a warrior emperor who sought to protect Rome from barbarians when the empire teetered on collapse.

The emperors Arcadius and Honorius made further reinforcements. The two main gates were transformed into self sufficient fortresses. The height of the walls was increased to about 52 feet.

The walls survived the fall of Rome, though parts of the wall were later torn down during the Middle Ages. They continued to serve a defensive function, until they were breached in 1870. This marked the beginning of the unification of Italy.

Here’s my complete guide to the Aurelian Walls .

28. Caligula’s Garden Of Delights

Caligula was the fourth of the Caesarian emperors. He’s mostly known as a combustible lunatic and tyrannical ruler who married often and never forgot a slight.

During the four years he occupied the throne, Caligula had a favorite hideaway. It was an imperial garden called Hour Lamiani on Esquiline Hill.

The garden was essentially a wildlife park, filled with shrines, banqueting halls, orchards, and fountains. Exotic animals completed the tableaux. They were used for private circus games.

Archaeologists discovered the Roman ruins of the lavish garden complex under a 19th century apartment building during excavations in 2006-15.

In April 2021 the Nymphaeum Museum of Piazza Vittorio was opened. You can see highly decorative frescos, mosaics, ceramics, jewelry, pottery, and animal bones.

They paint a vivid picture of wealth and opulence of imperial Rome and the appetite for luxury of Caligula.

29. Pyramid of Cestius

Rome was a little obelisk crazy in its heyday. Egypt was downright fashionable and astonished wealthy and Rome aimed to emulate its example.

In fact, Rome has more obelisks than the country of Egypt. 8 are Roman and 5 are Egyptian. They’re a symbol of what Rome once was — the cultural hub of the known world.

The Roman pyramid was most likely built between 18 and 12 B.C. during the reign of Augustus. The pyramid is 120 feet high and covered in white Carrera marble. 

You can tell it’s not the real deal. The pyramid is too steep and pointy, compared to the real Egyptian pyramids of Giza.

Cestius was built as a tomb for a wealthy Roman under the sway of all things Egyptian. The tomb was long ago ransacked.

The pyramid was excavated and restored in the 16th century. Many of the columns and sculptures that once surrounded it are in the  Capitoline Museums .

You can visit the pyramid on a guided tour . If you want to visit solo, reservations must be made in advance.

30. Ara Pacis

Another Roman ruin to visit in Rome is the Ara Pacis monument. The Roman Senate commissioned this Altar of Peace in 13 BC to honor Emperor Augustus.

It’s a piece of Roman propaganda. Augustus had just defeated the barbarians. His victory marked the beginning of the Pax Romana, a 200 year golden age where arts and architecture flourished.

The altar was once part of a large complex. But the Ara Pacis Museum opened in 2006 and is dedicated to this single monument.

The museum is housed in a modern glass and steel pavilion designed by American architect Richard Meier. It’s light and airy.

The monument is adorned with imagery and wonderful relief carvings depicting the history of Rome and Augustus’ accomplishments. The message was clear. Rome was safe and stable under Augustus.

If you don’t want to pony up the rather outrageous entry fee, you can admire the ornate altar through the windows or take the museum’s virtual tour  here .

But if you do want to go inside, click  here  to book a skip the line ticket for the museum.

31. Largo di Torre Argentina

Largo di Torre Argentina is an archaeological site in the heart of Rome just minutes from Piazza Navona . Excavations have revealed the remains of four Republican-era Roman temples and part of the ancient Theatre of Pompey.

This is ancient stuff, dating from the 3rd century B.C. For history buffs, this is also the place where Julius Caesar was (most likely) assassinated in 44 BC.

Apart from its historical importance, Largo di Torre Argentina is also known for its association with cats. The square has become a sanctuary for stray cats. There is a designated area called the “Roman Cat Sanctuary.”

In the past, visitor could only gaze at the ruins from an observation platform at street level. But the ruins just opened to the public for the first time in June 2023. Now, you can go below and stroll along new walkways.

32. Domus Tiberiana

Another Roman ruin on Palatine Hill is Domus Tiberiana. It was the first official imperial palace in Rome.

The palace was built during the reign of the Roman Emperor Tiberius (14-37 AD). Tiberius used as a residence before he became emperor. And it became the designated abode of the designated heir to the empire.

Until recently, it had barely been excavated as it was overlaid by the Farnese Gardens in the 16th century. In September 2023, it will reopen to the public after more than 40 years of restoration.

I hope you’ve enjoyed my guide to the must visit ancient Roman ruins of Rome. You may enjoy these other Rome travel guides:

• 8 ways to spend 1 day in Rome
• 3 day itinerary for Rome
• 5 day itinerary for Rome
• 1 day itinerary for Vatican City
• Hidden gems in Rome
• Best museums in Rome
• Guide to the Borghese Gallery
• Guide to Palatine Hill
• Guide to the Roman Forum
• Guide to the Colosseum
• Walking tour of central Rome

If you’d like to visit must see ruins and historic landmarks in Rome, pin it for later.

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Last Updated on August 22, 2023 by Leslie Livingston

27 Ancient Roman Ruins That Are A Must-See

It’s no secret to anyone that Rome is a top destination for archaeology buffs. From the Colosseum to the ruins of the ancient aqueducts scattered around the city, there is no city like Rome that better fits the moniker of an open-air museum. Our selection of the most interesting ancient Roman ruins will help you get around the precious sites that gave shape to the sophisticated Roman civilization.

Even admitting that there is hardly a site better than another, one can’t really deny that with a limited time, making a choice becomes necessary. Here are our suggestions of some pretty amazing archaeological sites in Rome you should include on your bucket list. Let’s dig in!

Table of Contents

Map of the most important ancient ruins in Rome

Fantastic archaeological sites to visit in Rome

Impossible not to start with the Colosseum . Arguably the most popular site in all of the city and the first landmark everyone rushes to, a visit to the Colosseum is a must for every first-timer.

A mighty amphitheater erected in the 1st century, this is where gory shows and fights between gladiators and gladiators against wild animals took place to please emperors and ordinary citizens.

There are many types of Colosseum tours , depending on how much you want to see, how much you are willing to spend and whether you are interested in accessing spaces usually closed to the public or staying within the general areas.

Roman Forum and Palatine Hill

Right next to the Colosseum and often included in the same tours are the Roman Forum and the Palatine Hill, two of the most important archaeological sites in Rome.

The cluster of buildings that includes temples, stores, and funerary altars were once the pulsing heart of ancient Rome. Now we can visit the forum and even see where Julius Caesar was cremated and where Romans still bring fresh flowers to his altar.

The Palatine Hill is believed to be the first settlement where Rome was founded and is a fantastic place to see ancient Roman imperial villas.

Together with the Colosseum, the Roman Forum and the Palatine Hill are the largest ancient site in central Rome. To visit, I recommend booking your ticket online especially if it’s high season such as summer or December .

Baths of Caracalla

A mighty witness to Romans’ love for taking care of themselves and enjoying some spa time, the Baths of Caracalla are great to visit and a fantastic hint to how gorgeous they must have been back in the day.

Mosaics, ornamental statues, arches, and vaults were part of the decorations of the different areas from the gym to the calidarium to the tepidarium .

The baths included also a library where the spa-goers could relax and part of the complex is Rome’s largest Mithra temple located underground.

I find the Baths of Caracalla one of the most fascinating ancient sites in Rome. It’s huge and well-preserved so that you can walk around the different rooms and halls, understand how they were set up and what was the path and routine.

Don’t miss visiting underground to see where the slaves would stay to continuously feed the furnaces with wood so that the upper floors and water would always stay warm.

Mausoleum of Augustus

Reopened in March 2021 after 14 years of renovation, the Mausoleum of Augustus is the monumental tomb of one of the most important figures of imperial Rome. A first circular corridor runs all around the central body where the funerary urns were kept, likely including also Augustus’ urn.

The largest circular tomb of the ancient world, this grand mausoleum reminds us of the Etruscan funerary monuments and was built by the same emperor as a celebration of defeating Mark Anthony and Cleopatra in the battle of Actium.

This is the funerary mausoleum of the Gens Julia-Claudia dynasty and some of the illustrious members that were buried here include Augustus himself, Marcello, his nephew who died prematurely, Livia, Augustus’ wife, emperor Tiberium, emperor Caligula and his mother, and emperor Nerva, even though belonging to the Flavia dynasty.

During our tour, we visited all the floors of the mausoleum and could see how it was adapted to other purposes throughout the centuries when local noble families interred the main body to make different uses out of the ancient structure.

This is how the mausoleum became a stronghold first, under the Colonna family, it was covered by a garden rooftop by the Soderini family, and even transformed into an amphitheater by the Portuguese-born Correa clan.

Make sure you read our selection of the most important buildings in Rome .

Teatro di Marcello

The building of Teatro di Marcello (the Theater of Marcellus) started under the rule of Julius Caesar and ended with his nephew Augustus. In 13 BC it was given its name as a tribute to Augustus’ nephew who died in Baiae near Naples in 27 BC.

Erected in the Campo Marzio area where, traditionally, theater plays had already been taking place, the Theater of Marcellus occupied an area of the Circus Flaminius where peasants and ordinary citizens participated in the city’s legislative and judiciary gatherings.

All around, porticoes and temples were erected similar to other peasant areas such as the Aventine Hill and the Forum Boarium. When Christianity took over, the theater was abandoned and used as a stronghold by patrician families. Today it can only be visited from the outside.

You can visit the Theater of Marcellus after a tour of the Colosseum or the Capitoline Museums and then, just crossing the small passageway of the original Roman pavement behind it, you will end up in the Portico d’Ottavia in the Jewish Ghetto.

Portico di Ottavia

Part of the same archaeological site of the Theater of Marcellus, Portico di Ottavia will introduce you to the Jewish Quarter. Built by Quintus Caecilius Metellus Macedonicus in 146 BC after his victory that resulted in turning Macedonia into a Roman province.

The sumptuous Porticus of Octavia was overlooking the Circus Flaminius from where triumphal processions would start. The beautiful Porticus included two large temples, one devoted to Juno Regina and one to Jupiter Stator.

The whole structure was later rebuilt by Augustus between 27 and 23 BC and named after his sister Octavia. In 203 AD, the Porticus of Octavia is renovated again by emperor Septimius Severus and his changes are most of the vestiges we can see today.

Originally, the structure was raised on a podium and included two temples, two libraries (one Greek and one Latin), and a Curia, the area for public gatherings.

The front facade featured at its center a monumental gateway in the form of propylaea as it was in Greek temples or buildings. In 19 AD an arch was built in honor of Germanicus right beside the propylaea.

Inside, the temple was like a museum hosting several works of art.

In the 8th century, they built the adjacent Sant’Angelo Church partially covering the northern part of the propylaea.

Today, the Porticus of Octavia is nicely nestled inside the Jewish Quarter, making it one of the easiest archaeological sites in Rome to visit. The site is open from 9 am to 6 pm (7 pm in summer) and you don’t need to book to enter. Being so close to a modern neighborhood, you can either visit before or after a delicious Roman Kosher meal.

Vicus Caprarius

Vicus Caprarius is a great and little-known archaeological site in Rome in the very city center, a stone’s throw from the Trevi Fountain . I, myself, discovered it recently and was very pleasantly surprised. Among the names they gave to this site is “city of water” ( la città dell’acqua ) and once inside, it’s easy to understand why.

Set up on the cistern of Aqua Virgo, the ancient aqueduct that through its branches and new parts supplies water to the Trevi Fountain and other important fountains in Rome.

Even though water is really an important feature of this archaeological site in central Rome, it’s not the only thing you will see as also other parts of the neighborhood have been dug in the area.

Aqua Virgo Ancient Ruins

More than in a single site, the remains of Aqua Virgo ancient aqueduct are ancient Roman ruins scattered around the city. Apart from the site mentioned above where is the aqueduct’s cistern, two of the best places to see this ancient piping system are next to the Trevi Fountain in Via del Nazareno 9 or on the underground floor of La Rinascente shopping mall in Via del Tritone. In both places, you can see the arches of the waterway.

To access the ruins in Via del Nazareno you need to call Rome municipality at 060608 and the visit is paid (4€ per person), while to see the ruins inside the department store is free.

The experience inside La Rinascente is very interesting because along with the ruins, a multimedia installation runs repeatedly and tells visitors the story of the area and of the other ancient Roman remains that were found here including a domus, an insula, and parts of other aqueducts.

These were all re-buried but archaeologists managed to study them and gather the information we can learn via the multimedia show.

San Clemente Basilica

Just behind the Colosseum, San Clemente is a medieval basilica steeped in history gifting us with a fascinating experience. Before making your way underground, take a tour around the street-level church for some austere ecclesiastic architecture.

Time to dive into some ancient history, now, visiting the early-Christian 4th-century basilica under the medieval one and taking a walk around an ancient Roman neighborhood.

In these ancient Roman ruins, you will see a magnificent example of the Mithra temple and school, the archaeological site of the Roman mint, and the tiny alleys of an authentic Roman district.

San Clemente Basilica is one of those precious Roman ancient sites to visit that are also easy to reach because a short stroll away from the Colosseum. Unfortunately, it’s not allowed to take pictures.

Santa Cecilia in Trastevere Basilica

Hands-down one of my favorite experiences in Trastevere , visiting the undergrounds of Santa Cecilia Basilica will reveal an ancient domus complete with baths, an insula , and the entrance to a taberna (shop). On your way around one of the most interesting ancient Roman ruins, you will also see pieces of a mosaic floor and remains of working tools and jars.

Between the modern church and the ancient Roman findings, visitors will marvel at the arches, vaults, and pillars of the beautiful crypt where the tomb of the saint is kept. Before leaving the area, check if there is a long queue standing in front of Da Enzo al 29, one of Trastevere’s best restaurants and if there isn’t, enjoy a fantastic traditional Roman meal.

Vatican Necropolis

If you decide to visit the Vatican , you will soon realize that there are so many places to see that you can hardly do it in one day. However, if you can afford some extra time or if you are an archaeology buff, the ancient Roman necropolis under St. Peter’s Basilica won’t leave you unimpressed.

Sprawling besides the circus emperor Caligula built on the gardens he had inherited from his mother Agrippina that later became Nero’s Circus where Christians were persecuted and where Peter was allegedly killed, a tour around the necropolis will show a great deal of Roman and early-Christian history. I’ve been once but wouldn’t mind visiting again since there is so much to learn and understand.

Hadrian Mausoleum

Known as Castel Sant’Angelo, the scenic mausoleum on the banks of the river is also known for having been the papal residence and public prison. But it was built as the funerary monument to emperor Hadrian and a visit shows the centuries of history and kingdoms Rome has endured. Plus, a beautiful view of Saint Peter’s dome.

Due to the many layers of history that the Hadrian Mausoleum went through and the many functions it covered, during your visit, you will see remnants from very different periods, not just from imperial times, when it was built.

Parco degli Acquedotti

If you have ever thought about studying or reading about the fantastic feats of public engineering represented by the ancient Roman aqueducts, a visit to southern Rome’s Parco degli Acquedotti along the Appian Way will be utterly fascinating.

With the juxtaposition of six of the main 11 waterways such as Aquae Marcia, Tepula, Iulia, Claudia, Anio Novus, and Anio Vetus (the latter only underground), you can enjoy your visit to one of the largest ancient sites in Rome with a walk or by renting a bike. This is a lovely park to relax also for families with kids and you can either visit independently or by joining a private guided tour .

Very close, and somehow connected to the experience is also Parco di Tor Fiscale where Aqua Claudia and Marcia intersect in two places and Aquae Tepula and Iulia that cross them forming a polygonal shape. This area is called Barbaric Camp because it’s where the Ostrogoths settled when they besieged Rome in 537.

Sant’Agnese Fuori le Mura Complex

The beautiful and historically layered Sant’Agnese Fuori Le Mura Complex lies in Via Nomentana and is one of the must-see ancient Roman sites. All around the modern church are important early-Christian sites that include large catacombs, a graveyard, the ruins of a 4th-century basilica, the crypt where the young martyr Sant’Agnese is buried, and the 4th-century Mausoleum of Costanza, the daughter of Constantine the Great.

The strong devotion Costanza felt for Sant’Agnese martyr was what pushed to her build this complex. It’s thanks to her, in fact, that we have the archaeological Roman ruins of the 4th-century basilica as well as her own funerary monument beautifully decorated with the finest mosaics. Whether you are after art or history, the complex of Sant’Agnese Fuori Le Mura is one of those ancient Roman ruins you don’t want to miss.

St. Paul Outside the Walls Undergrounds

Underneath the important Basilica of San Paolo Fuori le Mura is a vast ancient Roman site that you can access from the cloister of the church. This is a very interesting archaeological area because you can wander around it and see vestiges from different eras.

Starting from the earliest ecclesiastic complex dating back to the 5th and 6th centuries, you will also view the remains of some houses historians think are from a project by Pope Symmachus to give shelter to the poor people of the area.

Access to the Basilica is free of charge, but to enter the cloister that gives you also access to the archaeological site costs 4€.

Stadium of Domitian

Have you noticed that Piazza Navona has an oval shape? Wondering why? Because it was built on top of a vast stadium wanted by emperor Domitian in an effort to shift his fellow citizens’ interest from the gory shows of the Colosseum to more well-behaved Greek sports disciplines.

The imperial effort went unsuccessful for the most part, but the remains we can see today from Via di Tor Sanguigna of Domitian’s Stadium show a finely decorated theater with carvings and ornamental statues. Visitors can also watch an interesting representation of how both the stadium and the city of Rome were at the time of Domitian.

Rome’s Catacombs

Even though scattered all around the city, I gather Rome’s Catacombs in one paragraph because they are quite a lot and belong to pretty much the same period of time, the early Christianity in the city.

From Priscilla Catacombs near Villa Ada Park to the huge San Callisto’s in the Appian Way, visiting Roman ancient burial sites is very fascinating to understand an important part of the local history and society in what it concerns both the Christian persecutions, the cult of the dead and the transition from paganism to Christianity.

Rome’s Mithra Temples

Similar to the Catacombs, also the sanctuaries devoted to the Persian god Mithra are several in Rome so even though placed in several locations, I think it’s less confusing to gather them under the same roof.

Apart from the one mentioned above located below San Clemente Basilica, most Mithra temples are underground and often open to the public only after previous booking and request to the Council (060608) or to a certified guide. Those that are worth a visit are the ones of the Baths of Caracalla, the Circus Maximus and underneath Palazzo Barberini .

Pyramid of Caestius

Located in the Testaccio neighborhood near Ostiense, Rome’s Pyramid is pretty difficult not to notice since it’s huge and stands out from all the other buildings in the area. It was built by Caius Cestius between 18 and 12 BC at a time when the Egyptian style was very popular in Rome.

Unfortunately, it’s not always open so if you want to enter, you should call Rome municipality at 060608 for inquiries. Otherwise, you can go see it from outside and maybe enter the adjacent Protestant Cemetery where you will also stumble upon the sweet cats of the Pyramid’s colony that often jump into the graveyard to relax.

Trajan’s Markets

At this site, you will be visiting an archaeological area and a museum, the permanent exhibition of Imperial Fora, the huge archaeological park along Via dei Fori Imperiali connecting Piazza Venezia with the Colosseum.

The area housed shops and administration offices and what we call the Trajan’s Markets was where they managed all the activities related to the Trajan’s Forum. The tour includes traditional and interactive panels as well as multimedia presentations showing how the Imperial Fora were in their heyday.

You will see parts of decorations, pillars, temples, columns, sculptures, capitals from all the imperial fora including the ones of Julius Caesar, Augustus, and Nerva, apart from Trajan’s one. As a big perk, when visiting this archaeological site, you can also enter the ruins of Trajan’s Forum.

Domus Aurea

Relive the splendor of Nero’s Domus Aurea he built for himself after the devastating fire that in 64 AD destroyed much of Rome’s city center. This was the sumptuous home emperor Nero built for himself and included a large complex of gardens and other areas destined for the entertainment of the family or for residential purposes.

Occupying a surface of more than 50 hectares over the Palatine and the Esquiline Hills, according to historians, the Domus Aurea was the largest and most opulent residential mansion ever built in Rome.

Even though after Nero’s death his successors tried to erase everything linked to him also by looting its residence from all its decorations, today it’s possible to visit what’s left of it and see how it was back in the day thanks to the immersive multimedia Domus Aurea Experience. Here for more info .

Circus Maximus

Not far from the Colosseum, the Circus Maximus was a huge oval-shaped racecourse for chariots. Today is mainly used as a park, for relaxing, and running, and also for public events such as concerts, New Year’s celebrations, and for festivals and activities the council organizes on the occasion of Rome’s birthday on April 21st .

Since on the actual site there is no illustrative panel, a nice way to enjoy your visit and see how it looked like back in its heyday is to join the recent Circo Massimo Experience sponsored by Rome Council, a tour of the place with the aid of Zeiss VR devices for multimedia reconstruction. Click here for more info on timing, prices, and how to book.

Nearby, you can visit the Baths of Caracalla and, if you happen on the weekend, you can visit one of the best food markets in Rome , Mercato Campagna Amica al Circo Massimo (Via di S. Teodoro 74).

Domus Romane of Palazzo Valentini

Not far from Piazza Venezia is Palazzo Valentini (Via Foro Traiano 85), a 16th-century palace now the seat of Provincia di Roma. In its undergrounds, it’s possible to visit the ruins of an ancient Roman domus , a patrician house belonging to a powerful family from imperial times, probably of a senator, that still preserves mosaics, colorful flooring, and finely decorated walls, and shows even the remains of a private thermal bath.

Diocletian Baths at Museo Nazionale Romano

Museo Nazionale Romano is a museum in Rome spread into several locations. The main one is next to Stazione Termini and is staged all around the huge Diocletian Baths, the ruins of which you can visit during your tour. The museum itself, even though not an archaeological site, displays arguably the world’s largest collection of ancient Roman findings, tools, mosaics, decorations and more.

Crypta Balbi

On the other hand, Crypta Balbi is located in Via delle Botteghe Oscure between Largo Argentina and Piazza Venezia. Standing right next to the theater Lucius Cornelius Balbo built in the 13th century BC, the crypt was a covered porch to serve as a protection for the citizens waiting to enter the nearby theater in case of rain or as a refreshing point for the breaks during the plays.

Largo Argentina

Largo di Torre Argentina is an important sacred area of Ancient Rome consisting of four large temples. One of the first temples built here dates back to the 3rd century BC and was commissioned by the naval commander Gaius Lutatius Catulus after his victory against the Carthaginians.

The second temple was erected in the 2nd century BC at the request of Quintus Lutatius Catulus and lies near the oldest of all the temples of Largo Argentina, the one devoted to Feronia, ancient Sabine divinity, built between the 4th and 3rd centuries BC.

Largo Argentina is also famous for being the place where important Roman statesman and commander Julius Caesar was murdered and for hosting one of Rome’s largest feline colonies.

As a fantastic update, the important Roman archaeological site of Largo Argentina has been finally opened to visitors who can access and have a tour around it for 5€ per person. In summer, it’s open until 7 pm, and in winter, until 4 pm (last entrance, an hour before closing time).

Insula of the Ara Coeli

It’s such a pity that this wonderful place is hardly noticed by the crowds. Probably its position slightly hidden from the main route or its being below modern-day street level are the culprits for it being so out of the radar even though one of the most important ancient ruins in Rome and revealing of the urban planning and development of Roman times.

To face the increasing overcrowding of the city between republican and imperial times, Romans started to build tall blocks of flats that would develop vertically instead of horizontally. From the street, if you look down over the fence, you can see all four floors the insula was originally built with, the shops ( tabernae ) of the ground floor, and beautiful frescoes on the upper level.

About The Author: Angela Corrias

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16 Ancient Rome Sites & Roman Landmarks to See in Rome, Italy (+Map)

By Author Jurga

Posted on Last updated: September 28, 2023

Ancient Rome – the civilization dating from the founding of the city of Rome in 753 BC until the collapse of the Roman Empire in the 5th century AD – has had a big influence on the world. It has inspired and influenced so many generations and continues to do so today…

No matter how many books you read and how many movies you saw, there is no better way to get acquainted with this fascinating culture than by visiting some of the ancient Roman landmarks in Rome, Italy!

In this guide, you can learn about the best Ancient Rome sites that you can still see in Rome today . Some of them – such as the Pantheon or the Colosseum – are world-known and are among the most popular places to see in Rome . Quite a few other remaining Roman landmarks are lesser-known and could be qualified as the hidden gems of Rome , often overlooked by tourists… But they are all worth seeing!

Whether you are fascinated by the Ancient Rome civilization, are interested in antique Roman architecture, or simply want to see some of the most impressive Roman landmarks and learn the stories behind them, this list will give you a good idea of the places that are worth visiting the most.

To help you plan your time, we also created a map indicating the best Ancient Rome landmarks in Rome . You can find this map at the bottom of the article.

Even if you just visit a few of these landmarks, you’ll appreciate so much better how special and unique Rome really is. It’s not for nothing that it’s called the Eternal City.

Good to know: Please note that in this guide we only mention some of the best-preserved and most important Ancient Rome landmarks that are located in or just near the city of Rome.

We also tried to sort this list by age, starting with the oldest Roman landmarks first. However, it’s not always possible to determine the exact dates. Furthermore, some archeological sites contain more than just one building (each dating from different periods), and others were built and rebuilt or their development spanned over several centuries…

So the timeline is only meant to give you an idea of how Ancient Rome developed over the centuries. It should give you a better insight into how old and unique these antique Roman sites really are…

Take a look!

Here are some of the best ancient Roman landmarks you can see in Rome today:

1. Palatine Hill & Roman Forum

The origins date from around the 10th century BC. Some of the oldest Roman temples (7-8th century BC) were located in this area as well.

The Roman Forum (Forum Romanum) and the Palatine Hill (Palatino) are among the oldest places in the city of Rome. It’s in this area that you’ll find most of the ancient Roman landmarks; too many to even try to list them here…

It’s believed that the founders of Rome – Remus and Romulus – were nursed by a she-wolf in a cave – Lupercal – that was located on the slopes of the Palatine. In 2007, this theory was once again confirmed when the archeologists found a vaulted sanctuary deep under the ground that could indeed be the Lupercal.

So if you are looking for the most ancient sites in Rome, this is as good as it gets. The Palatine is literally the birthplace of Rome !

In Ancient Rome, the Palatine was one of the most desirable neighborhoods in the city. The rich and the famous built their palaces here and you can still see some very impressive ruins on the Palatine.

Right next to it is the Roman Forum, the bustling heart of ancient Rome. Today, this is a huge archeological site where you can see many of the oldest buildings and monuments of Rome.

How to visit: The Roman Forum and the Palatine are located right next to the Colosseum and an entrance to all these sites is included in the same ticket . You can just walk around on your own, but I highly recommend visiting here with a guided tour . There’s so much to see and it’s a fascinating site, but without knowing what you’re looking at, it’s just a bunch of ruins and stones…

2. Ostia Antica

The origins date from the 7th century BC.

Ostia Antica was an old city, the commercial and military seaport of ancient Rome. The archeological remains found here date to the 3rd- 4th century BC, but some inscriptions are believed to be three centuries older than that.

This is one of the best-preserved ancient Roman cities and a great place to visit if you want to get a better idea of what life was like for ordinary folks in the old Roman times.

In its glory days (2-3rd century AD), over 100,000 people lived in Ostia. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the city slowly fell into decay. It was completely abandoned in the 9th century.

Big parts of the old city of Ostia are excavated and you can see the remains of old houses, shops, baths, but also docks and warehouses. One of the most impressive sites is the old Roman theater – Teatro di Ostia.

Ostia Antica is often compared to the more famous ancient Roman cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum.

However, these places are located close to Naples, a 2.5-3 hours drive from Rome (they can be visited as a day trip too , but you will need an entire day for that). Whereas Ostia Antica is just 45 minutes drive from the city center. In fact, it’s located very close to Leonardo da Vinci International Airport in Fiumicino.

How to visit: Ostia Antica is the only Roman landmark mentioned in this guide that is located quite a bit further from Rome’s city center. You can get here by taxi or by train, and there are also organized tours. The most popular option is this half-day guided tour by train .

3. Circus Maximus

The origins of Circus Maximus date to Rome’s earliest days. The construction began around the 6th century BC.

Circus Maximus (Circo Massimo) was the largest stadium in Ancient Rome, mainly used for chariot races. It also served as the site of Roman Games, gladiator fights, animal hunts, etc.

Its current distinctive U-shape dates from the times of Julius Caesar who ordered the refurbishing of this arena at around 50 BC. At that time, the stadium could seat about 150,000 spectators.

After the Great Fire of Rome in 64 AD, Circus Maximus was rebuilt and reached its maximum capacity with place for about 250,000 people.

The last chariot races here were held in the 6th century, after which the ancient arena was pretty much abandoned. The area was cleared and turned into a park in the early 20th century and is nowadays sometimes used for concerts and other big outdoor gatherings. A small part of the ancient site is being excavated, but the majority remains under the ground.

How to visit: Apart from the big open oval space in the middle of the city, there is actually not that much left of the ancient Circus Maximus nowadays. You can see it from an elevated angle from Palatine Hill, and you can also go for a walk here. Some tours also come here. It’s a good way to learn more about the place and the guides usually have pictures showing you what the place looked like, etc.

There may not be much left of it, but as you stand here, it’s easy to imagine a crowd of a quarter of a million people cheering at the chariot races: the noise, the dust, the excitement… It’s well worth seeing Circus Maximus, even if just from a distance. It’s yet another puzzle piece that gives you a better idea of what life was like in Ancient Rome.

TIP: If you are interested in a tour, we recommend this one that visits Circus Maximus and also the Baths of Caracalla (a very interesting ancient Roman site that you can read about further below).

4. Appian Way

Built around 312-264 BC.

Appian Way (Via Appia Antica) is an ancient road that connected the city of Rome to Brindisi in Southern Italy, some 563 km (350 miles) away. Its main purpose was to help the army with the expansion of the Roman Empire.

To me, the Appian way feels the most authentic of all Ancient Rome sites that you can still see today. Built over 2300 years ago, some parts of this road look pretty much as they would have looked back in the old days. There are hardly any signs of modern-day life here, and if you’re lucky to visit on a quiet moment or go just a bit further from the city, you’ll likely be completely alone… It’s magical!

Appian Way is lined with ancient family graves and mausoleums, some of them still standing next to the road today (in the past, it was forbidden to bury people inside the city walls, and it was easy to have a family grave next to a major, easily-accessible way just outside the city).

As you walk or bike on Via Appia, you can easily imagine the Roman military marching here, horses and carriages driving up and down, and families visiting the graves of loved ones… If you’ve seen movies like Spartacus , vivid images of Ancient Rome come to life. It’s a really special place, and if you have a few hours extra, I highly recommend visiting here!

How to visit: The Appian Way is a long road that starts in Rome. The first part closest to the city has changed a lot and looks just pretty much like any other street. And while you don’t have to go very far to find some more authentic parts of this ancient way, it’s not really a place you can easily walk to. It’s best to come here by bus, on a tour, or by bike.

TIP: I highly recommend joining an e-bike tour . Not only is this the best way to get here and explore a bigger section of this unique road, but you’ll also see so much more! It’s also good to visit here with a local guide who knows exactly where to go and will bring you to the most authentic sights.

We visited the Appian Way with this great bike tour that also includes quite a few other ancient Roman landmarks mentioned further in this guide. Highly recommended!

5. Park of the Aqueducts

Most Roman aqueducts date from the period between the 3rd century BC and 1st century AD. The oldest Roman aqueduct – Aqua Appia – was constructed around 312 BC, at around the same time as the Appian Way.

If you want to see more of the most authentic ancient Roman sights and get a bit more off the beaten path in Rome, definitely consider a visit to the Park of the Aqueducts (Parco degli Acquedotti) . This is antique Rome at its best, and without the crowds. In fact, you’ll likely have the park all to yourselves…

Here, you can see several ancient aqueducts dating from the glory days of the Roman Empire. Reliable water supply was of utmost importance for the quickly-growing cities, and a series of aqueducts were built in order to bring drinking water from the mountains into the city of Rome.

Parts of these ancient aqueducts survived to the present day, and you can admire some really fine examples of ancient engineering. Some aqueducts were tens of kilometers in length, and they were built with such a small gradient that was just enough to get the water flowing towards the city at a steady pace. It would be quite an achievement even nowadays…

How to visit: Park of the Aqueducts is located on the outskirts of Rome, about 10 km from the city center. There’s a metro line running just nearby, so you could get here by public transport quite easily. However, it’s a massive park and so if you come on foot, you’ll need at least half a day to explore it. The best way to visit Parco degli Acquedotti is by bike.

We came here on the earlier-mentioned e-bike tour that also took us to Via Appia and ancient catacombs (see further below). It’s really one of the best ways to explore several of the best ancient landmarks in Rome in a short time!

TIP: One of these 2000-year-old aqueducts still supplies water to the famous Trevi Fountain today. If you don’t have the time to visit the Aqueducts Park, you could also opt to visit Vicus Caprarius (aka Trevi Underground) in the city center. Here, you can see one of the ancient aqueducts under the ground.

6. Largo di Torre Argentina

The ancient temples here date from the 2nd – 4th centuries BC.

Largo di Torre Argentina is a town square in the historic center of Rome. Some of the city’s most ancient temples are located here, and this was also the site of Rome’s 1st theater, the Theater of Pompey (55 BC).

The square is best known as the place where Julius Caesar was murdered by the members of the Roman Senate on the Ides of March (15 March) in 44 BC.

Most of the ancient buildings here are just ruins, but some of the remains of the temples can still be distinguished among the rest. The oldest temples are believed to date from the 4-3rd centuries BC, the others are from the 2nd century BC. They all date from pre-Christian times, but one of them was later rebuilt as a church.

How to visit: Largo di Torre Argentina is a public square, just a few minutes walk from the Pantheon and other main sights in the city center. The archeological site has recently been made accessible to the public via a small walkway with several panels where you can learn about the history of this place. It’s free of charge and wheelchair-accessible.

You can also just walk all the way around the archeological site and easily see all the ancient buildings from the street. Some people come here to learn more about the death of Julius Caesar, others – for the ruins, and yet others for the cute cats that inhabit the area.

TIP: This amazing food tour we did in Rome also brings you to Largo di Torre Argentina and the guide gives some explanation about the sites you see.

LEARN MORE: Rome Street Food Tour with a Local Guide

7. Pyramid of Caius Cestius

Built in 18-12 BC .

Looking somewhat out-of-place and totally different from anything else in Rome, the Pyramid of Cestius (Piramide di Caio Cestio) is one of the oldest and best-preserved landmarks in the city .

Just as the famous pyramids in Egypt, this one was also built as a mausoleum. Inside, is the tomb of Gaius Cestius, a wealthy Roman magistrate who died in 12 BC.

The pyramid of Cestius survived for over 20 centuries mainly because it was integrated into the city walls. You can still see one of the old city gates – Porta San Paolo (3rd century) – just next to the pyramid.

How to visit: You can see the pyramid from the outside at any time.

However, it is only open to the public a few days a month and if you want to visit inside, you’ll have to book it in advance. For more information, please consult the official website .

The chances that they are open just when you’re in Rome aren’t very high and it does require quite some planning, so this is one of those landmarks that you can best admire from the outside.

8. Theater of Marcellus

Built around 17-13 BC.

Marcello Theater (Teatro di Marcello) was the largest and most important theater in Ancient Rome, with space for almost 20,000 spectators. Its original construction looks a bit like the famous Colosseum, which was built almost 100 years later.

Built in the 1st century BC, this open-air theater remained in use until the early 4th century. Just like many old buildings in Rome, it was then looted and the stones were used for the construction of other buildings. What remained of it, was later used as a sort of an apartment building, and afterwards as a fortress.

Nowadays, the archeological site is a museum and it’s sometimes used for concerts as well. The upper part of the building still serves as residential apartments. Marcello Theater looks really impressive at night when it’s nicely lit.

In addition to the ancient theater, you can see lots of other ruins here as well that are yet several centuries older. The most notable is Portico of Octavia (2nd century BC) and also the Temples of Apollo Sosiano and Bellona (5th-1st centuries BC), plus Tempio di Giano (3rd century BC).

How to visit: You can see the theater of Marcellus from the street (the best view is from Via del Teatro di Marcello), but the archeological site can also be visited inside. It is normally open from morning to dusk and is free to visit.

There are informational panels and you can just walk through here when visiting the Jewish Ghetto or on your way from/to Circus Maximus or Bocca della Verità (Mouth of Truth).

TIP: Outside this archeological site, but also just near the theater, you’ll find several other lesser-known ancient Roman landmarks. This is the site of the cattle market Foro Boario (3rd century BC). Here, you can see the remains of two temples – Tempio di Portuno (2-3rd century BC) and Tempio di Ercole Vincitore (2nd century BC). If you’re in the area anyway, it’s worth checking them out as well.

9. Domus Aurea

Built around 65-68 AD.

Domus Aurea , aka the  Golden House of Nero , is another ancient landmark worth seeing in Rome. It’s located just a stone’s throw from the Colosseum that was built just a bit later.

After the Great Fire of Rome in 64 AD, Emperor Nero seized a huge centrally-located plot of land in order to build a lavish entertainment complex for himself and his guests. This started the rumors that he might have started the fire in the first place…

Domus Aurea was a lavish entertainment site with landscaped gardens, an artificial lake, fountains, pools, etc. The huge villa was richly decorated and had a rotating dining room with a golden dome with an oculus, a masterpiece of ancient engineering. The building materials included marble, gold, and mosaics made of precious stones and ivory, etc.

The Golden House represented the best of the Roman Empire’s art and engineering, but also the worst of its excesses. The project was hugely unpopular and after Nero’s death, a big part of the site was covered by ground. In fact, the Colosseum was built over the site of Nero’s artificial lake. The villa itself was still used by other emperors, but a few decades later it was also covered by ground and new bathhouses were built over it…

Covered by the earth, Domus Aurea remained very well preserved. It was rediscovered in the 15th century and became an inspiration to many Renaissance artists. However, the exposure to the elements has done a lot of damage, and because a large part of the site remains under what’s currently a park, it’s extremely difficult to preserve what’s left of it without causing a complete collapse.

How to visit:   Domus Aurea is located at Colle Oppio Park; the entrance is on Via della Domus Aurea. You can visit a small part of the original site, partially underground.

The Golden Vault Room virtual reality experience gives a good idea of what this place must have looked like in the past. Here you can see the availability and book a guided tour.

TIP: If you have more time, we highly recommend opting for a guided tour that also includes the Virtual Reality experience !

10. Colosseum

Built around 70-80 AD.

The Colosseum (Colosseo) is probably the most iconic and best-known of all Ancient Rome landmarks. Almost 2,000 years after it was built, it remains the symbol of the Roman Empire, but also of Rome as we know it today.

This was the largest and the most impressive ancient amphitheater. Despite being ruined by several earthquakes, plundering, and looting, the Colosseum still stands today. Built as an entertainment arena, it could seat some 50,000 – 80,000 spectators!

The main purpose of the Colosseum was to keep the regular people of Rome content by providing entertainment (remember the old Latin saying “panem et circenses” – bread and circuses). The amphitheater was used for public spectacles including gladiator fights, animal hunts, but also the recreation of sea battles and dramas based on ancient mythology.

A big part of this impressive building is quite well preserved and you can get a pretty good idea of what the original arena would have looked like. It’s really interesting to see all the different layers of the structure. So if you can, take the time to walk around it and explore deeper, – you’ll appreciate it so much more.

In addition to seeing the Colosseum from the outside, you really have to see the inside as well. Part of the arena floor has been restored and you can also take in the views from the upper levels.

It’s now also possible to visit the underground level which gives you a very unique insight into how the arena functioned. You can see where the wild animals were kept, where the gladiators waited for the fights, the mechanisms used to bring them upstairs, etc.

How to visit: You can see the Colosseum from the outside and walk all the way around it. But you’ll need a ticket in order to visit inside. This is one of the most popular Rome attractions in Rome and you really have to  book your tickets  or  a guided tour in advance.

TIP:  If you want to visit all the levels of the Colosseum including the underground, you’ll need to go with a guide. We opted for  this tour  which includes all the levels of the Colosseum, and also the earlier-mentioned Roman Forum and Palatine Hill, and I can highly recommend it.

LEARN MORE: Colosseum Levels & Best Ticket Options

11. Trajan’s Market

Built around 100-110 AD.

Trajan’s Market (Mercati di Traiano) is a 2nd-century Roman market, often described as the oldest shopping mall in the world . It was part of a bigger complex – Trajan’s Forum – that was once the bustling center of the Roman Empire.

This architectural site is not only a fine example of ancient Roman architecture, but it also gives you a unique insight into the everyday life of the Roman people. It’s also a good place to see how the city has changed over the centuries.

The markets were mainly used in the 2-5th centuries. Later, new floor levels were added, a tower was built, and in the 16th century, there was a convent here… At the beginning of the 20th century, some of the recent additions have been demolished again, and an effort was made to restore Trajan’s Market and the surrounding area.

In 2007, the Museum of Imperial Fora  was opened here, and you can now explore this unique site from close by. Walking on the original streets of ancient Rome – Via Biberatica and Via della Torre – is a really special experience. This is one of the places where you can truly feel the antique Rome around you. And despite its very central location, only very few tourists seem to find their way inside…

How to visit: You can see a big part of the Trajan’s Market archeological site from Via dei Fori Imperiali, the main street between Piazza Venezia and the Colosseum. However, if you want to learn more about it, walk on the ancient streets, and explore the most impressive parts, be sure to visit the Museum of the Imperial Fora in the Trajan’s Markets.

It’s open daily except for some public holidays. More info on the official website . The entrance here is included with this and several other city passes .

TIP: If you have more time to explore, get a ticket that includes a multimedia video . This video gives you a unique insight into what Trajan’s Markets looked like during the glory days of Imperial Rome.

In addition, as you walk on Via dei Fori Imperiali towards the Colosseum, you can see the ruins of the Forum of Augustus (2 BC) and too many other ancient ruins to even try to mention.

12. Pantheon

The origins go back to 27 BC, but the Pantheon as we know it today was built around 125-127 AD.

Built almost 2,000 years ago and still standing strong, the Pantheon is the best-preserved of all ancient monuments in Rome. In fact, the Pantheon is  the oldest building in the world that is still in use today .

Dating from before Christianity, the Pantheon was originally built as a temple to all gods. However, it was later converted into a church (7th century). This saved the old temple from looters and plundering and helped preserve this unique monument through so many centuries.

The Pantheon has also served as the burial place for many artists and kings. Inside, you can see the tombs of Raphael, King Victor Emanuele II, King Umberto I, Queen Margherita of Savoy (after whom pizza Margherita was named), and several others.

World-known for its impressive oculus , the Pantheon has inspired many generations of architects and engineers, including Michelangelo who designed the dome of St. Peter’s Basilica in the Vatican. Michelangelo was so impressed by the unknown ancient architect and its genius dome structure that – out of respect – he made sure that his own construction was slightly smaller.

How to visit: The Pantheon is a working church, but it can only be visited for free during mass (and you won’t be able to walk around).

It’s open daily, and if you want to visit it as a tourist, you need to pay for a ticket. While you can ‘just’ queue at the entrance, we recommend getting a timed entry ticket in advance. The queues can be really long, there are multiple lines for cash and credit card payments, and it’s overall quite chaotic. Even with online reservation, you have to pick up an actual ticket at another location first (hopefully, they’ll change this in the future, but be sure to read the instructions!).

You can book the Pantheon tickets on the official website (which many of our readers find confusing), or on GetYourGuide or on Tiqets . GetYourGuide also offers free cancelation up to 24 hours before the visit. All online tickets include an audio guide.

TIP: If you want to learn more about this unique ancient landmark and visit without stress, you can also opt for a  guided tour .

13. Castel Sant’Angelo

Built around 134-139 AD.

Castel Sant’Angelo (Mausoleum of Hadrian) is another ancient Roman landmark that you really can’t miss in Rome.

Once the tallest building in Rome, it might look a bit like a castle indeed, but it’s actually a tomb. This impressive mausoleum was built in the 2nd century for Emperor Hadrian and his family. The ashes of several other emperors were placed here as well, including Emperor Caracalla at the beginning of the 3rd century.

At the beginning of the 5th century, the mausoleum was looted and turned into a military fortress. In the 14th century, the building was turned into a castle and was subsequently used by various popes. A covered fortified corridor was built in order to connect Castel Sant’Angelo to the old St. Peter’s Basilica at the Vatican.

Nowadays, Castel Sant’Angelo serves as a museum. Inside, you can see some perfectly preserved frescoes from the Renaissance, visit the Chamber of Ashes where the emperors were incarcerated, and see the Papal Residence.

How to visit: You can just see the building from the outside, but you can also visit the inside. It’s located on the main route on your way to the Vatican.

You can get a fast-track ticket and visit on your own or join a guided tour. The entrance to the museum is also included with the Omnia Pass .

TIP: Don’t miss the panoramic views from the rooftop terrace of the museum. It’s one of the best viewpoints in Rome , offering amazing views of the River Tiber, the historic city center, and the Vatican.

14. Catacombs of St. Callixtus

Built between the 2nd and the 5th century AD.

If you are looking for even-more unique sites to see in Rome, consider visiting some of the ancient catacombs (underground burial sites). There are over 60 known catacombs in Rome, with hundreds of kilometers of subterranean tunnels, and hundreds of thousands of graves. Some of these catacombs are open to the public.

Probably the most special and best-known are the Catacombs of St. Callixtus (Catacombe di San Callisto) , located next to the Appian Way mentioned earlier. This ancient site stretches for about 20 km (12 miles), is over 20 meters (65 ft) deep, and contains about half a million graves.

Several Popes were buried at this site and you can visit the  crypt of the Popes . In addition, you can see the crypts of some early Christian martyrs, including the  crypt of St. Cecilia . You can also walk around and explore underground galleries and see hundreds of – now empty – tombs around you.

How to visit: You can only visit the Catacombs of St. Callixtus with an official guide (included in your entrance tickets ).

You have to make your own way to the catacombs (by car, by bike, or by public transport) and it’s essential to book a tour in advance or you risk not being able to visit. It’s a popular site.

TIP: There are also many guided tours from the city center that include a visit here, usually together with some other ancient sites. We visited St. Callixtus Catacombs with this e-bike tour that also took us to Via Appia and the Park of the Aqueducts.

15. Baths of Caracalla

Built around 212-216 AD.

Baths of Caracalla   (Terme di Caracalla or Termae Anthoninianae) is one of my personal favorite ancient sites in Rome. This grand 3rd-century complex with remarkable ruins and some very well restored mosaics is absolutely impressive! You feel so tiny here and it makes you realize how advanced the Romans really were in architecture and engineering.

These public baths were built at the beginning of the 3rd century and were the second-largest bathhouse in Rome. In addition to the luxurious bathing houses, the complex also had several saunas, a sports center, and even an Olympic-size swimming pool. The site was surrounded by beautiful gardens and even had a library.

The baths were heated via a sophisticated underground oven system and you can still see the remains of it today. These Roman baths remained in use for about 300 years. Nowadays, it’s a working archeological site that is open to the public.

Visiting here gives you an amazing insight into yet another aspect of daily life in the glory days of the Roman Empire. And because the Baths of Caracalla are somewhat of a hidden gem and not many tourists come here, this is one of the ancient Roman sites with a more authentic feel.

How to visit: The Baths of Caracalla are located a 10-15 minutes walk from the Circo Massimo metro station or about 20 minutes walk from the Colosseum.

You can see some ruins from the outside, but the best parts and the mosaics can only be admired if you actually visit inside.

Normally, you can just get your tickets on the spot. You can find more info on the official website (in Italian).

TIP: The earlier-mentioned guided tour is a great option if you want to visit the Caracalla Baths and Circus Maximus with a local guide.

16. Baths of Diocletian

Built around 298-306 AD.

Baths of Diocletian (Terme di Diocleziano) were the largest and most impressive public baths in Rome. The site is just as grand as the above-mentioned Baths of Caracalla, and it also contained several hot and cold baths, but also open-air bathing pools, etc. It’s also believed to have housed a library.

Built at the turn of the 3rd – 4th centuries, the baths remained in use until the 6th century. Over the centuries, the site has been used for various purposes, with lots of construction in and around it shaping the new city of Rome. In the 16th century, a basilica was built here, and later a monastery was added as well. At a certain point, parts of the old bathhouse were used to store and sell grain and oil.

In the late 19th century, the monastery was abandoned. The Roma Termini railway station was built nearby, just as several hotels, palazzos, etc. In 1889, the remaining site of Diocletian’s Baths and the monastery was designated as a museum, part of the National Roman Museum .

This means that the site is quite well-preserved, many of the areas are covered with a roof, there are beautiful sculptures, mosaics, and other Ancient Rome artifacts. It has much more of a museum feel than the Baths of Caracalla, but is well worth visiting too!

How to visit: The National Roman Museum – Baths of Diocletian section is quite centrally located, just next to the main train station in Rome.

It’s normally open daily except on Mondays, and you can just get a ticket on the spot. For more practical info, please see here .

TIP: The entrance here is also included with the Omnia Card .

Map of the best ancient landmarks in Rome

To help you get a better idea of where all the sites mentioned in this guide are located, we created a map indicating the best ancient Roman landmarks in Rome.

This should help you plan your visit, and maybe you can include a few of these places in your itinerary when exploring the most popular sights and tourist attractions in Rome .

How to use this map:  Use your computer mouse (or fingers) to zoom in or out. Click on the icons to get more information about each place. Click the arrow on the top left corner for the index. Click the star next to the map’s title to add it to your Google Maps account. To view the saved map on your smartphone or PC, open Google Maps, click the menu and go to ‘Your Places’/’Maps’. If you want to print the map or see it in a bigger window, click on ‘View larger map’ in the top right corner.

So, this is our guide to some of the most interesting ancient landmarks to see in Rome. I hope that this gives you a better understanding of when some of the oldest buildings were built, the stories behind the ruins you see, and inspires you to visit at least some of them.

There’s so much history and fascinating ancient sites everywhere you go in Rome, and that’s what makes the Eternal City one of a kind!

For more information and tips for your visit, please also see our itineraries and other guides to Rome via the links below.

Rome travel guides:

• Tips for Planning a Trip to Rome
• How to Get to Rome from the Airport
• How to Plan Your First Trip to Europe
• Must-sees: Best Things to Do in Rome
• Where to stay: Best Area to Stay in Rome
• Where to eat: How to find the best food in Rome
• Hidden Gems of Rome
• Best Views & Viewpoints in Rome
• Rome Underground Sites
• 1 Day in Rome  (all the best places)
• 2 Days in Rome  (the musts + a few hidden gems)
• 4 Days in Rome  (top sights, hidden gems, a few more ancient landmarks)

If you found this post helpful, don’t forget to bookmark it and share it with your friends. Are you on Pinterest? Pin these images!

More travel inspiration and tips for Italy:

• What to see:  Best Places to Visit in Italy & Most Beautiful Cathedrals in Italy
• Cities:  Most Beautiful Cities in Italy
• Itinerary: How to See the Best of Italy in 2 Weeks
• Florence: Best Things to Do in Florence & One Day in Florence
• Milan: Best Things to Do in Milan &  One Day in Milan
• Venice:  Best Things to Do in Venice  &  One Day in Venice  &  Doge’s Palace  (must-see!)
• Naples: Best Things to Do in Naples & One Day in Naples & Where to Stay in Naples & Best Day Trips from Naples
• Cinque Terre:  One Day in Cinque Terre & Where to Stay in Cinque Terre & Info + Tips for Visiting Cinque Terre
• Tuscany:  Most Beautiful Towns in Tuscany  &  Tuscany Itinerary & Montepulciano
• Siena: Best Things to Do in Siena & Siena Cathedral
• Amalfi Coast:   Amalfi Coast Itinerary & Capri & Amalfi Coast Travel Tips
• Emilia Romagna:  Emilia Romagna Itinerary & Best Things to Do in Bologna & Best Things to Do in Rimini
• San Marino:  Complete Guide to Visiting San Marino
• Italian Lakes:  Lake Garda  & Lake Como &  Bellagio &  Best Lakes in the Dolomites
• Italian Mountains:  Hiking in the Dolomites  &  Best Places in the Dolomites  &  Best Lakes in the Dolomites & Dolomites Accommodation Guide
• Food:  Italian Food by Region
• … for many more guides and destinations, please see our Italy travel guide .

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Friday 28th of April 2023

Thanks for this great guide, Jurga. It's so interesting to also see the timeline of the oldest places in Rome. I always thought that colosseum is the oldest building in Rome and had no idea about so many other places. I will try to visit Ostia Antica too and already booked the Appian Way bike tour that you recommended.

Thanks for the feedback, Evy, and have a great time in Rome!

Must-see attractions in Ancient Rome

Ancient Rome

Everyone wants to see the Colosseum, and it doesn’t disappoint, especially if accompanied by tales of armored gladiators and hungry lions. More than any…

Roman Forum

An impressive – if rather confusing – sprawl of ruins, the Roman Forum was ancient Rome's showpiece center, a grandiose district of temples...

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Capitoline Museums

Dating from 1471, the Capitoline Museums are the world's oldest public museums, with a fine collection of classical sculpture.

You can't ignore the Vittoriano, built at the turn of the 20th century to honor Italy's first king, Vittorio Emanuele II.

Arco di Tito

Said to be the inspiration for the Arc de Triomphe in Paris, this triumphal arch was built by the emperor Domitian in AD 81 to celebrate his brother Titus…

Mercati di Traiano Museo dei Fori Imperiali

This striking museum showcases the Mercati di Traiano (Trajan's Markets), the emperor Trajan's towering 2nd-century complex, while also providing a…

Palazzo Venezia

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Chiesa di Santa Maria Antiqua

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Basilica dei SS Cosma e Damiano

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Colonna Traiana

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Casa di Livia

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Casa di Augusto

The Casa di Augusto, Augustus’ private residence, boasts superb ceiling and wall frescoes. These are further enhanced by audio narrations and video…

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Orti Farnesiani

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Roma dal Cielo

This panoramic lift will whisk you to the top of the Vittoriano for sweeping 360-degree views of the city from the Terrazza delle Quadrighe.

Chiesa di Santa Maria in Aracoeli

Atop the steep 124-step Aracoeli staircase, this 6th-century Romanesque church sits on the highest point of the Campidoglio. Its richly decorated interior…

Imperial Forums

The forums of Trajan, Augustus, Nerva and Caesar are known collectively as the Imperial Forums. They were largely buried when Mussolini bulldozed Via dei…

Basilica di San Marco

Now incorporated into Palazzo Venezia, the early-4th-century Basilica di San Marco stands over the house where St Mark the Evangelist is said to have…

Arco di Costantino

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Arco di Settimio Severo

Dedicated to the eponymous emperor and his two sons, Caracalla and Geta, the 23m-high Arco di Settimio Severo was built in the Roman Forum in AD 203 to…

Statue of Marcus Aurelius

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Domus Augustana

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Carcere Mamertino

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On the Roman Forum, the Curia was the meeting place of the Roman Senate. According to tradition, it was originally built by Tullo Ostilio, the third of…

Domus Flavia

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Tempio di Romolo

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Basilica di Massenzio

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Foro di Traiano

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Tempio di Antonino e Faustina

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Rampa di Domiziano

Accessible through the Chiesa di Santa Maria Antiqua, this ramp is actually a vast passageway that allowed the emperors to enter the Roman Forum from…

The cobbled Via Sacra, the main road through the Roman Forum, traverses the site, running from the Capitoline Hill to the Arco di Tito at the forum's…

Museo Palatino

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Tempio di Castore e Polluce

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Ancient Rome Empire Tour with the Pantheon and Teatro Marcello

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Tourism Through the Ages: The Human Desire to Explore

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Although taking a summer vacation is now a standard aspect of modern-day civilization for many, it wasn’t always that way. Tourism was far less common in ancient times than it is today, but that certainly doesn’t mean it didn’t occur at all. Even in ancient times, people had a natural curiosity about the world around them and yearned to explore. 

However, tourism didn’t necessarily look the same then as it does now. So what did tourism look like, and where did ancient peoples like to travel the most? What was the perception of tourists in ancient times versus today? 

What was Ancient Tourism Like?

Tourism as we think of it has not always existed. In fact, travel was not possible for most people in ancient times. Travel was often difficult and full of dangers such as disease , starvation, dehydration, or death by wild animals. Because of this, travel was often seen as too risky unless absolutely necessary, such as for relocation, or religious, political, or medical purposes. 

However, travel did still happen. Armies would travel to take over new lands or conquer new cities. Tradesmen would travel to popular trade spots throughout their countries to sell goods for profits, while others would travel there to buy utilitarian or luxury items for their homes. Others would travel for important religious ceremonies that they were required to attend. Travel of this nature was considered a need within society, rather than a want, so not tourism as such. 

Lydgate and Pilgrims to Canterbury. Early ‘tourism’ was frequently for religious ceremonies and pilgrimages. (Jim Forest / CC BY NC ND 2.0 )

As time went on, technology advanced. With the expansion of roads and the development of more efficient travel using boats , chariots , and carriages, travel for leisure, or tourism, became an intriguing possibility. However, many individuals struggled with the same tourism questions we do today: if they could even afford to travel, and if they could, where they would go. 

Early tourists tended to avoid cities with political or civil unrest as it could be dangerous in the event of an uprising. It’s unsurprising these would be eliminated as tourism destinations . They would also avoid cities their own regions had hostility towards, as that was also considered risky business. They would instead choose regions that were not known to be dangerous, just to see what was out there. 

Although technological advancements made travel easier than walking or horseback, it was still perilous and time-consuming. Travelers would often bring small weapons for protection, along with any money they planned to spend. Travel would take from a few days to a few weeks (or even a few months!), depending on how far they planned to venture out. This also meant having to take preserved food with them to last the journey, or knowing where to stop along the way to find food when hungry. There were few to no establish tourism ‘rest stops’ in ancient times.

• Colosseum Will Have a Floor For The First Time in 1500 Years!
• Ancient Journeys: What was Travel Like for the Romans?

The Seven Wonders of the Ancient World ( artbalitskiy / Adobe Stock)

Tourism Destinations of the Ancient World

There were many tourism destinations available in ancient times, but some were more popular than others. Particularly, ancient tourists enjoyed tourism spots that served multiple purposes. This started as early as the times of the ancient Egyptians , who often traveled for government activities but would stay in foreign areas longer than necessary to enjoy the local shops, restaurants, games, and other forms of entertainment. 

This desire to stay abroad for entertainment continued with the Roman Empire. The Romans developed a system of roads that covered approximately 50,000 miles, in order to make travel easier. At the time, traveling 30 miles would take about a day, and they used that information to establish an inn system. Through this system, an inn would be placed approximately every 30 miles, so that you always knew you had a place to rest in the evenings as you traveled out. 

With more tourism establishments like inns along the roads , travel felt safer as well. There would be more people present in case of an emergency, and a lower chance of running out of food or water. The risk of natural predators would be lower as well, since travel would no longer take place through endless plains or overgrown wilderness. The Roman system became so well-established that people from surrounding areas would visit Rome, just to see the roads, inns, and other established infrastructure. 

Language and currency were an important part of tourism at this time as well. If your destination used a different currency or spoke a different language, you would likely be a bit reserved about spending much time there (if any time at all!). As a result, common tourism areas did business in several common languages, so they could be more inclusive of visitors and receive more tourism.

Tourism in the Middle Ages: Risky Business

After the fall of the Roman Empire , tourism was not the same. In fact, tourism hardly happened at all anymore because there was too much risk involved. Nations were at war with one another, and traveling to a new place meant inevitable danger for the traveler and their family. Lots of the efficient transportation infrastructure were now destroyed, and languages were more separated than ever. 

Travel returned to being a necessity rather than a vacation. Religious and political motives were the primary causes of any travel, as nations attempted to overtake one another. Trade routes had to be re-established, although many were still unwilling to risk the trek. It wasn’t until Marco Polo took the risk and began to write about his solo tourism in the 13th century that people began taking interest in exploration again. 

By the Renaissance , trade began to take hold once more, and so merchants were willing to travel further than before. Additional trade and tourism businesses opened, and commercialism steadily increased, especially in Europe. People that would visit these trading posts to purchase new and luxury goods would wonder what the rest of the world was like, especially the sources of their favorite goods. This then ushered in the Grand Tour Era. 

• Why Did Ancient People Travel Thousands of Kilometers for Incense?
• The Surprising and Iconic Bronze Age Egtved Girl: Teenage Remains Tell a Story of Trade and Travel

Exotic new products entering Renaissance markets fed a desire for tourism, Jan van Kessel the Elder 1650-1660 ( Public Domain )

The Grand Tour Era: Tourism for the Rich and Famous

The Grand Tour Era, as can be assumed by its name, was a major point in history for tourism. Between 1613 and 1785, the Grand Tour Era established tourism as a norm throughout many societies. However, it wasn’t always easy. Traveling at this time was mostly reserved for the upper classes, as travel and lodging had increased in price due to high demand. Rooms that could be provided for an average family were instead reserved for those able to pay the most.

Tourism was also held in high regard at this time because it was often used as a form of education. The children of the wealthy would travel abroad to gain an understanding of the world around them, making them more knowledgeable and well-rounded. Someone who’d had the opportunity to engage in tourism was seen as having a higher status than most, since they were perceived as more educated. 

The most popular tourism regions at this time included Germany, Italy, France, and Switzerland. Europeans would often travel to these countries by carriage because it was more comfortable. Their carriage would be driven by an experienced chauffeur familiar with the routes, to make travel as efficient as possible. Tourists would frequently bring someone with them that would care for them, whether a servant or a more experienced traveler. 

British Gentlemen in Rome, circa 1750 ( Public Domain )

Ushering in a New Era: The Industrial Revolution to Modern Times

Towards the end of the 18th century, tourism faced new challenges. The Industrial Revolution had changed tourism forever. Since people had more stable employment, they couldn’t take off for long periods of time to travel. Workers were stuck in their factories and businesses all week, unable to leave without jeopardizing the entire organization. Teamwork was essential and left no flexibility for vacationing. 

However, the Industrial Revolution also helped people to travel more easily too. With new technology, travel became more efficient. Plus, for many workers, higher salaries contributed to their ability to go on a nice vacation. Additionally, business trips were increasing, to open more businesses and factories. 

After several decades tied down to work and missing out on tourism experiences, workers began tiring of their overworked schedules. With more money came greater desire to expand one’s worldview. Planes, cars, and boats could be used to travel more quickly and comfortably than before. Office jobs also became more popular for their greater flexibility, and paychecks began to be used to see the world. 

A 1922 Thomas Cook ad for a three-week trip on the Nile for £70 ($80) ( Public Domain )

At this point, tourism became an essential part of a fulfilling life. Countries such as France became hot spots for tourism because they had advanced technology and roads compared to other regions. Thomas Cook, an English businessman, inspired those without tourism experience to take a leap and go on an adventure. Later, paid work leave established for many in the 20th century ensured that more families could take the time to travel. It was the biggest increase in tourism since the Grand Tour Era.

Throughout the 20th century, hotels and motels became more common businesses worldwide, further fueling the tourism industry. Later, the development of credit cards helped lower-income families afford vacations more easily. Credit cards also helped universalize currency, so traveling between countries and buying necessities became more efficient. In the 21st century, traveling has become more accessible than ever. 

1957 postcard showing tourism airline interior (Joe Haupt / CC BY SA 2.0 )

Tourism Today: Roadside Attractions, Cruises, #VanLife, and more

Tourism in ancient times could be difficult, but those early tourists certainly made the most of it. Today, travel and tourism are certainly much simpler than they were back then. There is more available information about different countries that can be considered before taking a trip, and most frequent travelers are looking for more than just new scenery. Tourism agencies now seek to put together packages for those looking for adventure, romance, or knowledge. 

The biggest difference between ancient and modern tourism is purpose. While ancient people traveled as a way to learn about the world around them, modern tourists seek to gather and savor experiences. Experiencing new places and cultures is more fulfilling than simply learning about the place online. If nothing else, travel nowadays is certainly much more efficient and luxurious than ever before. After all, aren’t you glad you don’t have to take a chariot everywhere?

Top image: Vintage postcard showing European tourism destinations. Source: Freesurf /Adobe Stock

By Lex Leigh

A Historical View of Tourism . Study.com. (n.d.). Available at: https://study.com/academy/lesson/a-historical-view-of-tourism.html

Gyr, U. (December 13, 2010). The History of Tourism: Structures on the Path to Modernity . EGO. Available at: http://ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/the-history-of-tourism/ueli-gyr-the-history-of-tourism

Rodriguez, C. P. (June 16, 2020). Travelling for Pleasure: A Brief History of Tourism . Europeana. Available at: https://www.europeana.eu/en/blog/travelling-for-pleasure-a-brief-history-of-tourism

Stainton, H. (May 27, 2022). The Fascinating History of Tourism . Tourism Teacher. Available at:   https://tourismteacher.com/history-of-tourism-2/

Tourism . (n.d.) Encyclopedia Britannica. Available at: https://www.britannica.com/topic/tourism

Lex Leigh is a former educator with several years of writing experience under her belt. She earned her BS in Microbiology with a minor in Psychology. Soon after this, she earned her MS in Education and worked as a secondary... Read More

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The wonders of ancient Rome: A guided tour

In a new book by british historian jerry toner, a fictionalized roman aristocrat takes readers on a ‘grand tour’ of the empire, exploring sites and attractions that early tourists once visited themselves, many now lost to time..

What have the Romans ever given us!? Other than the aqueduct, sanitation, roads, irrigation, wine, bathrooms, public order… and tourism? Jerry Toner, director of studies in classics at Cambridge University’s Churchill College in England, confirms: “Yes, that’s right, that too,” happily joining in on the joke — a reference to a scene from Monty Python’s The Life of Brian , in which a group of Jews resisting Roman occupation argue over the extent of their imperial occupiers’ contributions. In the film, the People’s Front of Judea did not actually include tourism in their reluctant list of Roman contributions, but they very well could have, given that the phenomenon as we now know it originated in ancient Rome. Thousands of years ago, wealthy tourists would travel for pleasure, visiting sites across the empire’s provinces, admiring monuments and enjoying the local cuisine. They saw things we can only dream of seeing today: the Lighthouse of Alexandria and, in the same city, the tomb and corpse of Alexander the Great; as well as other more rumored relics, like the gold and silver cup said to be molded on one of the breasts of Helen of Troy, which, so the rumor goes, was on display at the Temple of Athena Lindia in Lindos, on the island of Rhodes; or another temple, in Sparta, where visitors would flock to see Odysseus’s cloak and the oars of the Argonauts; or in Phocis, Greece, where the rich would travel to see the clay that Prometheus used to mold the first man. Like the tourists of today, Roman travelers suffered pushy tour guides, lousy accommodation, overcrowding, and tacky souvenir shops (where visitors could buy miniature replicas of the Parthenon ). They even left graffiti on monuments, as you can see to this day on the pyramids of Egypt, where one ancient inscription left by a Roman tourist reads, “I visited and I did not like anything but the sarcophagus!” To misquote the famous phrase that Tacitus attributed to Calgacus: “They made a desert and called it ‘tourism.’”

“In The Life of Brian , another reason the People’s Front of Judea wants the Romans to leave [Romani ite domum, as the centurion corrects Brian’s grammatically incorrect anti-Roman graffiti] is that Romans were always travelling through the territories they had conquered,” Toner says. “But unlike in the film, it was actually Roman tourists who would leave the graffiti, often with grammatical errors, as a way of making their mark on the ancient monuments, to make it clear that they were under Roman control.”

Toner, well known for his books Infamy: The Crimes of Ancient Rome (Profile Books, 2019) and The Ancient World (Profile Books, 2016), is the author of the recent, original and highly entertaining A Grand Tour of the Roman Empire , book one in The Marcus Sidonius Falx Trilogy. Toner’s latest book focuses on upper-class Roman tourism in the conquered provinces. Strictly speaking, he is the co-author of the book, which he wrote with Marcus Sidonius Falx, a fictionalized, high-born Roman who Toner invented to guide readers through a “grand tour,” avant la letter, of the empire, visiting Greece, Asia Minor, Egypt, and North Africa, and then Carthage, Hispania, Gaul and Britain (where one of Marcus Sidonius’s sons is stationed at Hadrian’s Wall ). At the end of each chapter, the historian comments on the tour, providing current perspectives and citing the classical sources on which he has based Marcus’s descriptions.

Marcus Sidonius’s guidebook takes readers back in time, showing them the maps used by Roman travelers and describing the different types of carriages available (he travels in a first class carriage with all the comforts, including a personal toilet), as well as the roads, the inns, and the cultural and scenic landmarks along the way. Our Roman guide packs “only the essentials,” which includes twenty slaves, a messenger, a head chef, a butcher, a barber, and a personal assistant. On his long journey through the empire, Marcus travels by road and ship. “It is hard work being a tourist,” he laments. “The pressing crowds, the scorching summer heat, the hassle from beggars, the lack of baths.” The guide takes Marcus, and the reader, on a visit of the Roman Empire’s greatest monuments, but also to see some lesser-known attractions as well, stopping at the oracle at the oak tree shrine in Dodona, tasting the garum (a fermented fish sauce) in Carthago Nova (modern-day Cartagena, Spain), and watching the dancing girls of Gades in Hispania Baetica (modern-day Andalusia). In Troy, an essential tourist stopover, Marcus’s guide offers to take him to see the lyre of Paris. In Judea, Marcus judges that the ancient fortress of Masada “is a lengthy detour,” and is not worth the trip “unless you are interested in siege warfare.” In Egypt, he notes that Alexander the Great “now lies in a glass coffin so that you can see the preserved corpse clearly, although this is now in a delicate state.”

Be careful, Marcus the tourist warns us, of how you treat the animals in Egypt: “A Roman visitor once kicked a cat so hard that it died. It turned out he had killed a sacred animal and nothing could save him from the baying crowd.”

Indeed, A Grand Tour of the Roman Empire is full of such vivid and believable scenes that it is hard not to picture the imaginary Marcus as a real, flesh and blood person — Toner himself likes to pretend, at times, that his Roman character really exists (that is, until things get too real when Marcus has a run-in with the emperor’s Praetorian Guard toward the end of his trip).

How did the idea for such a creative collaboration, between author and character, emerge? “I was teaching a course on Roman slavery and was looking for a way to help students understand how normal slavery was in the ancient world,” Toner explains. “Obviously, we feel an instinctual horror, but Roman sources give us a completely different point of view. To put those sources in the voice of a fictional character was a way to bring them to life, and to make them more accessible.”

In Toner’s guidebook, Marcus narrates his journey and offers the reader practical information and recommendations, while at the same time, painting a picture of what he was like as a person, and how he thought and acted as a member of the imperial elite. In general, Marcus Sidonius is a pleasant enough traveling companion, but he does have a few unsavory qualities as well. Portraying his negative side was necessary, Toner says, to paint a full picture of the Roman upper class, including their more reprehensible aspects. “In a sense, he’s a metaphor for Rome itself,” says Toner. “We can’t help being impressed by the buildings and cultural achievements, but we must also remember that the Roman world had a much darker side, too.” Marcus is cultured, intelligent and sensitive to the beauty of the monuments and landscapes he visits, but he is also arrogant, thinks of himself as superior, and never questions Rome’s right to subjugate its people, their right to take what they want, or the legitimacy of slavery. Marcus is unmoved when, travelling along the road from Palestine to Egypt, he encounters the terrible spectacle of a group of Christians who have just been crucified . He chats with one of the crucified and — not out of pity, but because his slaves ask him to do so — leaves one slave behind to break the legs of the crucified, so as to shorten their suffering. At another point on his journey, traveling through northern Gaul, Marcus passes by an abandoned baby. “The slave traders or the dogs will soon take care of it,” he says.

For better and worse, to accompany Marcus on his journey is to be immersed in the experience of travelling for pleasure at the height of the Roman Empire. Toner does not specify exact dates, and makes references to different emperors . “Marcus is coy about his age,” Toner writes. “But most of his views reflect those of the High Empire, that time praised by Gibbon as the period in history when the condition of the human race was most happy and prosperous.”

Did the concept of tourism, as we understand it today, really exist in ancient Rome? And if so, how was it different or similar to ours? “During the long centuries of the Roman peace, the Pax Romana of the empire, travel was readily available and affordable,” Toner explains. “This meant that a lot of people travelled for purposes of leisure, in ways comparable to the modern world. What was different was the number of people involved: there wasn’t the kind of mass tourism we have today, and only the wealthy could afford to tour the sights in Greece and Egypt. But large groups often traveled for religious reasons, for example, to attend the Games that took place as part of the great festival in Olympia, where tens of thousands of people would make the arduous journey.”

It is tempting to compare Marcus’s trip, and the trips of his peers, to the “Grand Tour” — that 18th- and 19th-century European custom in which wealthy tourists would travel the continent to admire art and other attractions. “For wealthy Romans to tour the sights of the East was one of the perks of the empire — a way of deriving pleasure from the places they had conquered,” Toner says. “They used to go to the same places — the great temples of Greece, the pyramids, the cities of Antioch and Alexandria — in much the same way as European aristocrats would participate in the Grand Tour. The wealthy also sent their young men to study oration at the great schools in Greece, a phenomenon that reflects the same kind of reverence for the classical past that we find in the early modern era.”

What would surprise us most about travel in ancient Roman times? “I think the amount of travelling helped foster the stability of the Roman Empire,” Toner says. “Imperial agents and officials would travel to perform governmental duties and oversee important projects, while soldiers would move to wherever they were stationed. Wealthy landowners would travel to oversee their estates [Marcus owns land as far away from Rome as Tarraco, in modern-day Catalonia], trade flourished, and merchants transported their goods to markets throughout the empire. Animals were imported for the amphitheater . Artists and craftsmen flocked to where there was work, and all manner of street entertainers, soothsayers and religious people passed through the towns in search of audiences, while the sick flocked to healing centers and sanctuaries in search of cures. The famous road network, although mainly for military use, also encouraged travel. All these travelers brought their cultures with them, and the result was that many cities acquired a high degree of cosmopolitanism. People also brought their gods with them, and the religions of the empire’s eastern lands introduced new forms of spiritual experience to Rome that were very different from the tradition enshrined at the Pantheon. I think we would also be very surprised by the indifference of the Romans to the suffering of others, and by their unbridled arrogance towards the people of the provinces. The empire also forced many people to travel. The crushing of revolts, such as the Jewish rebellion against Roman rule in Judaea, caused the displacement of entire populations. Millions more were sent far from their homelands, as slaves, to wherever their owners commanded.”

Marcus’s journey is full of such beautiful sights as to induce Stendhal’s syndrome, but it is also plagued by frequent inconveniences and dangers. What were some of the downsides of being an ancient Roman tourist? “There were all the annoyances we associate with travel today: delays, substandard accommodations, bad food, and bedbugs,” Toner says. “But by far the greatest dangers were shipwrecks and bandits. We have some ancient accounts that complain, as Marcus does, about what a terrible experience it was to be at sea in the middle of a storm. Banditry seems to have been a very common problem. Epictetus warns travelers not to venture out alone on a road, but to travel in company, with bodyguards if possible. Sparsely populated areas were clearly more dangerous, and civil wars would result in defeated or deserted soldiers turning to banditry to survive. Some travelers simply disappeared. Pliny the Younger describes how the nobles Robustus and Metilius Crispus vanished without a trace, although they may have been murdered by their own slaves.”

In the book, Marcus Sidonius suggests that, in addition to those unwanted travel-related inconveniences, ancient Romans also practiced something akin to adventure tourism, intentionally seeking out extreme experiences. “One example of this,” says Toner, “was the rapids of the upper Nile. Tourists would ask boatmen to take them down the river on rafts, and the braver ones could navigate the rapids on their own, much like today. One ancient traveler known for practicing this extreme sport was the Greek intellectual Aelius Aristides.” There was also a darker form of tourism, such as travelling to watch the traditional whippings inflicted on young boys during their initiations in Sparta. Curiously, Marcus speaks little of sex tourism, and other than the occasion when he is mistakenly put up in a brothel, reveals little of his erotic experiences along the way.

If we had travelled as a tourist in Marcus’s time, what would we make sure not to miss? Toner highlights a few must-sees, most of which have long ago disappeared, or have lost their original splendor. “For starters, there is the architecture: the marvelous theaters, arches, public baths, bridges and aqueducts, all evidence of a level of prosperity that had never been seen before. The empire’s more populous eastern cities rivaled Rome in their size and diversity, and had markets where one could find all sorts of exotic and luxurious goods, such as spices from India and silks from China. The great temples would have also been worth a visit. Shrines accumulated vast quantities of valuable objects, left by worshippers as offerings. So much has been lost that it’s hard to know where to begin. I would love to see the missing masterpieces of ancient art, like Phidias’s colossal chryselephantine [gold and ivory] statue of Zeus at Olympia, one of the seven wonders of the ancient world; and Myron’s bronze cow sculpture. And to have been part of the crowd at one of the great festivals. And to have heard the statue of the god Memnon, who was said to have greeted his mother, Aurora, every morning with a strange noise made from air passing through its crevices. You can still see the statue in Luxor, but Emperor Septimius Severus restored it and as a result the statue stopped speaking, which proved disastrous for local tourism.”

In Toner’s book, Marcus visits the Colossi of Memnon (in reality, both are statues of Pharaoh Amenhotep III), and is mesmerized by their singing. And like many Roman tourists of the time, he leaves some graffiti on one of the pharaoh’s legs. Among those who left their marks on the Colossi in real life is the emperor Hadrian himself, who once indulged in a luxury tour with his lover Antinous. Marcus also visits the tombs of the Pharaohs (in the Valley of the Kings there are over two thousand graffiti marks from classical antiquity) and takes some small bottles of water from the Nile as a souvenir, something that ancient tourists used to do as well, according to the Roman poet Juvenal.

One has to wonder whether Roman tourists like Marcus had the capacity to understand the world in scientific terms, or if their experience was heavily mediated by their mythological thinking. “For the ancients, there was no distinction between the legendary and historical past,” Toner says. “Roman tourists were certainly not just interested in physical sights. The accounts they left of their travels contain long mythological digressions about each place, in addition to recounting the history, the logistics of their journey, and their meditations on all sorts of other matters. They were a kind of Baedeker to the ancient world,” he says, referencing the famous German guidebook publisher.

The name Marcus Sidonius Falx — the protagonist in the other two books that complete Toner’s trilogy: How to Manage Your Slaves (Profile Books, 2014) and Free Your Inner Roman (Profile Books, 2016) — evokes the name of another famous fictional Roman, the detective Marcus Didius Falco, the unforgettable character from Lindsey Davis’s mystery novels. Did Toner do this intentionally, in homage to Davis’s work? “I’ve read the novels, and I highly recommend them, but it wasn’t a conscious nod to the name. A falx was a small curved dagger with a blade inside, like a sickle, and I wanted a name that gave a sense of Rome’s rougher side. On the other hand, falx also suggests falsus, and Marcus is a fictional character.”

As a specialist in ancient Roman history and the author of a magnificent book on the amphitheater and the gladiators — The Day Commodus Killed a Rhino: Understanding the Roman Games (Johns Hopkins University Press, 2014) — what does Toner think about the upcoming release of a sequel to Ridley Scott’s Gladiator ? “I loved the first movie. True, there were some historical inaccuracies, but that’s Hollywood, after all. I worry that the sequel will struggle to make the same impact, though, particularly given that we’ll be entering the messy and lesser-known period of the Severan Dynasty, but I’d love to be proven wrong!”

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Classic Ancient Rome Tour: Walking Through History

Home / Blog / Classic Ancient Rome Tour: Walking Through History

The essentials in a few days

Visiting Rome, a city bursting with history and magnificent monuments, is an unforgettable experience for anyone. To help you discover all the main places of interest and better plan your route through the Eternal City, here is the guide of things to do and see in Rome. Whether you’re a solo traveller, couple or a family, Rome is the ideal capital to spend a weekend of 2 or 3 days, above all because the city can be visited very easily on foot. So come and join us for a classic ancient Rome tour !

Guided tour through ancient Rome

For more than 500 years, Rome was at the heart of the ancient world. The centre of the world ( caput mundi , as the ancients called it) has left a considerable amount of stunning attractions and fascinating architecture, from the Colosseum to the Circus Maximus . Exploring the center of Rome is a unique experience, especially if you do it on foot.

Walking through Rome allows you to discover its history. A guided tour includes the most interesting places in classical Rome. This type of tour is perfect to experience the most significant places in Rome with a professional guide and without having to waste any of your valuable time in the queue. Thanks to priority access, it will introduce you to the treasures of ancient Rome including:

• The Colosseum : the jewel of Rome. It was the largest amphitheater ever built under the Roman empire, a must-see in the capital. Up to 75,000 spectators bore witness to gladiator fights and other shows. At night it is even more beautiful!

• The Roman Forum and the Palatine Hill : the Roman Forum is located right next to the Colosseum and was the heart of the ancient city with religious, political and public institutions. Many remains are very well- preserved, including some temples and the Roman curia (Senate House). During the visit, do not miss the Palatine Hill – , the hill on which Rome’s legendary King Romulus founded the city – which houses the remains of the palaces of the Roman emperors.
• The Capitoline Museums : here you can discover the stories behind a wealth of Greek and Roman objects and masterpieces.

• The Arch of Constantine : the Arch of Constantine is the last triumphal arch built in the Eternal City and it is located a few meters from the Colosseum. It was built in 315 AD in honor of the Emperor Constantine 1st and his victory against fellow emperor Maxentius in 312 at the battle of the Milvian Bridge. Recycled from the material of other monuments, its marbles and bas-reliefs powerfully symbolise the victories of the emperors and the strength of the empire.
• The Pantheon : Rome’s best-preserved temple is an ancient religious building situated right in the center of the city. The original Pantheon was built in 27 BC, but that’s not the building you see before you today (you’ll find out why on one of our classic tours!). In the 7th century, it was converted into a Christian church. To date it is the only building dating back to ancient Rome that is still perfectly intact.

• Trajan’s Column : Trajan’s column is a Doric column 40 meters high and is the only trace of the Trajan’s Forum surviving intact., It is located at the beginning of Via dei Fori Imperiali and. is truly unique because it is decorated with a 200 metre-long illustrative frieze that forms a spiral around the column.
• Baths of Caracalla : Caracalla’s Thermal Baths are an important place in ancient Rome. They are the remains of one of the largest thermal installations of antiquity. They were a real center of relaxation and recreation: home to a library, gardens, sports areas and places where to eat. The thermal baths were, obviously, a true architectural jewel of the time but they also had very sophisticated heating, water and sewage systems.
• The catacombs : there are several networks of catacombs in Rome, the best known are the catacombs of San Callisto, San Sebastiano, Priscilla and Domitilla. The catacombs are a network of underground galleries used to bury the dead. From the 2nd to the 5th-century pagan citizens, Roman Jews and early Christians were buried there. These underground cemeteries are rich in paintings and frescoes which magnificently represent the transition from a secular Roman society to a Christian society during the first centuries AD.
• Via Appia Antica : the Appia Antica is certainly the best known and most beautiful of the ancient routes issuing from the Italian capital. Several tens of kilometers long and dating back to the 4th century BC, it is lined by a range of tombs, villas and ruins – all to be admired from the beauty of its ancient cobbles.

• Other ancient sites in Rome : there are many other ancient sites and monuments that deserve a visit: the Circus Maximus, the ruins of Largo Argentina (where Julius Caesar was assassinated), the Pyramid of Cestius, the Domus Aurea, the Lateran Obelisk, and much, much more!

Some of our tips

Exploring Rome’s historic center (and some of its environs) involves spending several hours walking on cobblestones. Therefore, it is recommended to wear comfortable shoes and practical and light clothing.

Walks Inside Rome – Your guided tours agency

Walks Inside Rome has been specialising in unforgettable small-group and private tours since 1999. Our goal is to provide our clients with the highest quality tour guide services in art, history, food, and fun in Italy’s most spectacular destinations. We are open 7 days a week and we provide a variety of exciting, engaging, and educational tours for first-time visitors and discerning travelers across the Bel Paese.

If you are interested in our guided tours, contact us to develop a tour program for Rome and walks in its surroundings, private or collective visits at your convenience. Fill out the form on our website, send us an email, call us or chat with us on WhatsApp us for any questions and for any further information about our services. We look forward to meeting you soon so we can start exploring Italy together!

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By: History.com Editors

Updated: July 11, 2022 | Original: November 9, 2009

Located just east of the Roman Forum, the massive stone amphitheater known as the Colosseum was commissioned around A.D. 70-72 by Emperor Vespasian of the Flavian dynasty as a gift to the Roman people. In A.D. 80, Vespasian’s son Titus opened the Colosseum—officially known as the Flavian Amphitheater—with 100 days of games, including gladiatorial combats and wild animal fights. After four centuries of active use, the magnificent arena fell into neglect, and up until the 18th century it was used as a source of building materials. Though two-thirds of the original Colosseum has been destroyed over time, the amphitheater remains a popular tourist destination, as well as an iconic symbol of Rome and its long, tumultuous history.

Origins of the Colosseum

Even after the decadent Roman emperor Nero took his own life in A.D. 68, his misrule and excesses fueled a series of civil wars. No fewer than four emperors took the throne in the tumultuous year after Nero’s death; the fourth, Vespasian, would end up ruling for 10 years (A.D. 69-79). The Flavian emperors, as Vespasian and his sons Titus (79-81) and Domitian (81-96) were known, attempted to tone down the excesses of the Roman court, restore Senate authority and promote public welfare. 

Around 70-72, Vespasian returned to the Roman people the lush land near the center of the city, where Nero had built an enormous palace for himself after a great fire ripped through Rome in A.D. 64. On the site of that Golden Palace, he decreed, would be built a new amphitheater where the public could enjoy gladiatorial combats and other forms of entertainment.

Did you know? Archaeologists believe that the Colosseum contained both drinking fountains and latrines.

Building of the Colosseum 

After nearly a decade of construction—a relatively quick time period for a project of such a grand scale—Titus officially dedicated the Colosseum in A.D. 80 with a festival including 100 days of games. A well-loved ruler, Titus had earned his people’s devotion with his handling of recovery efforts after the infamous eruption of Vesuvius in A.D. 79, which destroyed the towns of Herculaneum and Pompeii . The final stages of construction of the Colosseum were completed under the reign of Titus’ brother and successor, Domitian.

The Colosseum: A Grand Amphitheater

Measuring some 620 by 513 feet (190 by 155 meters), the Colosseum was the largest amphitheater in the Roman world. Unlike many earlier amphitheaters, which had been dug into hillsides to provide adequate support, the Colosseum was a freestanding structure made of stone and concrete. The distinctive exterior had three stories of arched entrances—a total of around 80—supported by semi-circular columns. Each story contained columns of a different order (or style): At the bottom were columns of the relatively simple Doric order, followed by Ionic and topped by the ornate Corinthian order. Located just near the main entrance to the Colosseum was the Arch of Constantine, built in A.D. 315 in honor of Constantine I’s victory over Maxentius at Pons Milvius.

Inside, the Colosseum had seating for more than 50,000 spectators, who may have been arranged according to social ranking but were most likely packed into the space like sardines in a can (judging by evidence from the seating at other Roman amphitheaters). Awnings were unfurled from the top story in order to protect the audience from the hot Roman sun as they watched gladiatorial combats, hunts, wild animal fights and possibly even larger combats such as mock naval engagements (for which the arena was said to be flooded with water) put on at great expense. The vast majority of the combatants who fought in front of Colosseum audiences in Ancient Rome were men (though there were some female gladiators ). Gladiators were generally enslaved peoples, condemned criminals or prisoners of war.

The Colosseum Over the Centuries

The Colosseum saw some four centuries of active use, until the struggles of the Western Roman Empire and the gradual change in public tastes put an end to gladiatorial combats and other large public entertainments by the 6th century A.D. Even by that time, the arena had suffered damaged due to natural phenomena such as lightning and earthquakes. 

In the centuries to come, the Colosseum was abandoned completely, and used as a quarry for numerous building projects, including the cathedrals of St. Peter and St. John Lateran, the Palazzo Venezia and defense fortifications along the Tiber River. Beginning in the 18th century, however, various popes sought to conserve the arena as a sacred Christian site, though it is in fact uncertain whether early Christian martyrs met their fate in the Colosseum, as has been speculated.

By the 20th century, a combination of weather, natural disasters, neglect and vandalism had destroyed nearly two-thirds of the original Colosseum, including all of the arena’s marble seats and its decorative elements. Restoration efforts began in the 1990s, and have proceeded over the years, as the Colosseum continues to be a leading attraction for tourists from all over the world.

HISTORY Vault: Colosseum

The Roman Empire is vividly brought to life through the lens of the Colosseum.

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• Colosseum and Ancient Rome Area

The Colosseum & Ancient Rome Area is for adventurous spirits, archaeology enthusiasts and seekers of breathtaking views!

Even though Rome is a hectic city, counting more than 3 million inhabitants, the archaeological area of the Ancient Rome extends for over 10 hectares downtown Rome .

Over the years, excavation works have brought to light priceless evidence of the political, economic, and cultural heart of the Ancient Rome. Visitors have the chance to explore the history and understand the evolution of the western civilization traveling back to 2,000 years.

The imposing facade of the Altar of the Fatherland , one of the attractions of the Ancient Rome Area, is a reminder of the unification of Italy occurred in 1861, when Rome became the symbol of the country’s national identity at home and abroad. Although built only 200 years ago, the classical style and the winged-victories statues on top of the Altar of the Fatherland, recall the splendour of the ancient Greek-Roman architecture.

Climbing up the monumental staircase leading to the Capitoline Hill , you will stumble upon one of the most beautiful Renaissance squares in Italy , Piazza del Campidoglio, Michelangelo’s work! The monumental facade of Palazzo Senatorio hides one of the most breathtaking views of the Roman Forum , the main square of Ancient Rome!

The Trajan Column marks the entrance to Via dei Fori Imperiali and to Trajan’s huge business center. The ambitious Emperor had the column built to commemorate the wars (2nd century) of the Romans against barbarian populations coming from Eastern Europe.

Keeping strolling down via dei Fori Imperiali you will find access to the Ancient Roman Forum. Visiting the Roman Forum is like traveling by a time machine! You will follow on the footsteps of Julius Caesar , visit the Senate where for thousands of years senators and emperors had decided the destiny of Mediterranean populations and countries.

The valley the Roman Forum extends in is dominated by the vastness of the Palatine Hill, where the legendary founder of Rome, Romulus, built the first village of huts giving rise to a new world! After the 1st century AD, the Palatine Hill became a place of mass entertainment . The biggest amphitheater ever was built: the Colosseum ! Millions of visitors come to Rome every year, eager to visit the ancient Flavian Amphitheater, so impressive to be rated among the New Seven World Wonders!

But the Ancient Rome Area comprises more than just ruins and ancient remains! Not far from the Colosseum, stands the Church of San Pietro in Vincoli, also known in English as St. Peter in Chains , which houses one of the most beautiful attractions in Rome: the Moses Statue by Michelangelo.

Whoever comes to Rome should not miss to see firsthand these masterpieces!

What to do and see in Ancient Rome Area

Ancient Rome Area Attractions

Santa Maria in Aracoeli Facts & History

Altare della Patria Interesting Facts & History

Capitoline Hill & Piazza del Campidoglio

The Colosseum in Rome – Info & Tips

The Roman Forum in Rome Info & Tips

Altar of The Fatherland Hours & Info

Aracoeli Church Rome Info & Hours

Temple of Castor and Pollux in the Roman Forum

Regia Palace: the First House of Rome’s Kings

Column of Phocas, the last monument built in the Roman Forum

Arch of Septimius Severus in the Roman Forum, Rome – Italy

Comitium & Lapis Niger, the area in front of the Senate House

Curia Julia: The Senate House Of Ancient Rome

Basilica Aemilia in the Roman Forum, Rome, Italy

Facts about Julius Caesar: between History and Myth

Temple of Julius Caesar in the Roman Forum

Temple of Vesta & House of Vestal Virgins in the Roman Forum

Temple of Antoninus and Faustina in the Roman Forum

Temple of Romulus in the Roman Forum

Basilica of Maxentius & Constantine in the Roman Forum

5 Facts about the Arch of Titus in the Roman Forum

Temple of Venus and Rome in the Roman Forum

Roman Forum: Facts & History

5 Facts about the Colosseum You Didn’t Know

History of the Colosseum in Rome

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Travel in the Roman World

Dartmouth College

• Published: 07 March 2016
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This article examines Roman travel. It seeks to show how deeply travel was woven into the fabric of the ancient world and how many aspects of the Roman experience relate to it. Rather than pretend to total coverage, this article, which is divided into four sections, offers some ways of thinking about travel and its place in the Roman world, exploring the practice, ideology, and imagination of travel. Moving from a top-down perspective on Roman infrastructure and the role of travel in the practice of Roman power, the article turns to a bottom-up view of the experiences of individuals when traveling, concluding with a survey of the imaginative representation of travel in the literature of the Roman world.

Introduction

I see you know that I arrived in Tusculum on November 14th. Dionysius was there waiting for me. I want to be in Rome on the 18th. I say “want,” but really I have to be there—it’s Milo’s wedding. (Cic. ad Att. 4.13.1 = no. 87 SB; trans. Shackleton Bailey)

So Cicero writes to Atticus in the middle of November 55 BCE, asking for an update on the political situation in the capital. His tongue-in-cheek tone—he has ( cogimur ) to be in town for a wedding—belies both his urgent request for information and the complex network of roads and technologies of travel on which his upcoming trip depends. Neither Cicero’s letter nor his mini-break away from the city are out of place in his correspondence from the mid-50s. On Shackleton Bailey’s dating, twenty-nine letters survive from the years 56 and 55; nearly half were written outside Rome. We learn from those letters that Cicero traveled to Tusculum, Cumae, Napes, Pompeii, and Antium. In other years he ventured even farther afield. When he was reluctantly made governor of Cilicia in 51, he recounted his journey there in a series of plaintive missives to Atticus, griping, for instance, about “waiting for a passage” after being held up for twelve days in Brundisium by an “indisposition” ( ad Att. 5.8.1 = 101 SB; trans. Shackleton Bailey). The only thing worse than waiting for a ship was being a passenger on one; a month later he grumbles from Delos: “Travelling by sea is no light matter, even in July…. You know these Rhodian open ships—nothing makes heavier weather” ( ad Att. 5.12.1 = 105 SB; trans. Shackleton Bailey).

As detailed as Cicero’s correspondence is, it reveals just one individual’s experience of travel in the late Republic. For all the frustrations of his journey to Cilicia or the panic of his flight into exile—narrated in another series of letters from 58 ( ad Att. 3.1–8 = 46–53 SB)—he had much less to complain about than those who died in shipwrecks (e.g., CIL III 1899 = CLE 00826 = ILS 8516 [Blaška Voda; 201–300 CE], CIL XIII 2718 [Autun; second or third century CE]) or in pirate attacks (e.g., AE 1982.512 [La Muela; 71–130 CE]; CIL III 1559 = III 8009 [Slatina; 118–138 CE]). Indeed, Cicero can hardly be said to have lived an average life, even for an elite Roman; nevertheless, his Letters show how deeply travel was woven into the texture of the ancient world and how many aspects of the Roman experience relate to it. Rather than pretend to total coverage of the topic, in this chapter I offer some ways of thinking about travel and its place in the Roman world, exploring the practice, ideology, and imagination of travel from many different directions. Moving from a top-down perspective on Roman infrastructure and the role of travel in the practice of Roman power, I turn to a bottom-up view of the experiences of individuals traveling, concluding with a survey of the imaginative representation of travel in the literature of the Roman world.

Getting Connected: Roman Infrastructure and Roman Connectivity

Cicero might complain about Rhodian ships, but his Letters take for granted the roads, harbors, and organization that make his travels possible. The effect that this infrastructure had on the ability of information, people, and goods to travel through the Roman world might best be described in terms of the concept of “connectivity.” Originating in the fields of graph theory and network analysis, connectivity expresses the relationship between places in terms of the costs and time required to move between them rather than their geographical distance. The wide-spread adoption of the term in the study of the ancient Mediterranean is due in large part to the pioneering work of Horden and Purcell (2000 , 123–72, 562–71; many responses by, e.g., Harris 2005 and Knapp 2008 ; see further Pettegrew 2013 ). Connectivity also informs Walter Scheidel’s and Elijah Meeks’s Stanford ORBIS project ( http://orbis.stanford.edu ), which uses interactive geospatial modeling to plot land, sea, and fluvial routes between major centers in the Mediterranean in terms of the average temporal and monetary costs for each route. By expressing travel as a function of connectivity, the ORBIS model redraws our map of the Roman world and highlights the effects that infrastructure has on shaping its accessibility ( Scheidel 2014 ). Physical infrastructure is just one aspect of a region’s connectivity; in order to be used, it has to be known to and understood by individual travelers. A second aspect of infrastructure is what might be called its “legibility.” This concept, which originates in Urban Studies, applies the metaphor of reading to the experience of navigating a city or, in this case, the world (see, e.g., Lynch 1960 , 2–3). Linking these two approaches to understanding space, I construe connectivity more broadly to include all the intellectual and cultural processes involved in making infrastructure legible and comprehensible to travelers. While such processes of collecting, ordering, mapping, and communicating knowledge to the Roman traveler are harder to capture through mathematical models, such as ORBIS, they are no less important for understanding how the world is connected.

All Roads Lead to Rome, Part I: Physical Infrastructure

Roman connectivity was enabled in the first instance by a highly sophisticated and extensive transport network that consisted of roads as well as maritime and fluvial routes. Roads, which are still visible throughout much of the Roman world, could be traversed on foot; on the backs of horses, donkeys, or camels; and by a variety of vehicles powered by human beings and draught animals ( Chevallier 1976 , 178–81; Bagnall 1985 ; Laurence 1999 , esp. 78–94; Kolb 2000 , 308–32; Adams 2001 ; Matthews 2006 ; Adams 2007 ; Adams 2012 , 229–31; Bekker-Nielsen 2013 ; Owens 2012 ; see also Land Transport, Part 1 and Land Transport, Part 2 ). Built by Appius Claudius Caecus in 312 BCE (cf. CIL XI 1827 = ILS 54 [Arezzo; copy of CIL VI 31606 from the Forum Augusti]) the Via Appia, which Statius called the “queen of long roads” ( Silvae 2.2.11), was the first long-distance link in the Roman transportation network. Due to the Roman practice of extramural burial, the Via Appia, like many roads, was lined with tombs; visitors to Rome, for instance, would be greeted first and foremost by its dead (see Coarelli 2014 , 365–400). As Rome’s power grew, so did its road system; Romans either constructed new roads, as they did in many of the western provinces, or improved upon already existing ones, as in the eastern provinces. Roads’ importance to Roman travel lay in their support of Roman troop movements, in making inland territory easily legible and accessible in the wider network of the Roman state, and in enabling economic activity.

Travel by road was assisted by a secondary infrastructure of private hostels and state-sponsored stopping places to house emperors and Roman officials (Lat. mansio ), which developed during the Roman imperial period, gradually replacing the older practice of requisitioning room and board for official travels ( Casson 1974 , 197–218; Mitchell 1976 ; Millar 1977 , 32–33; Adams 2001 , 142–45). Information, goods, and services could also be transported along Roman roads by the cursus publicus , an express imperial messenger service founded by Augustus ( Ramsay 1925 ; Stoffel 1994 ; Kolb 2000 ). Although there is far less archaeological evidence for roads in Egypt, there too land transport played a central role in the movement of people and goods throughout the province. In addition to archaeologically attested routes that connected the Nile Valley to the Western Desert and the Red Sea coast, Colin Adams collects evidence for a wider network of more temporary roads closer to the Nile, long since destroyed by the river’s annual flooding, which ran from the Mediterranean coast to as far as Syene (Western Desert— Darnell 2002 ; cf. Adams 2007 , 30–33; Western Oases ; Red Sea— Sidebotham and Wendrich 2001–2002 ; Gates 2005 ; Adams 2007 , 33–42; Sidebotham 2011 , 125–74; cf. Strabo 17.1.45; Pliny NH 6.33.165; IGR I 1142 = OGIS 701 = SEG 51 2123 [Antinooupolis, modern Sheikh ‘Ibāda; 137 CE]; The Eastern Desert and the Red Sea Ports ; Nile— Adams 2007 , 22–29; cf. P.Oxy. LX 4087, 4088 [first half of the fourth century CE] on way stations in Tacona and Oxyrhynchus).

Roads were by far the costliest means of transporting goods and traveling; according to calculations made by applying the ORBIS model to data from Diocletian’s Edict on Maximum Prices of 301 CE, transportation by wagon cost between five and fifty-two times more than travel by boat for equivalent distances ( Scheidel 2014 , 9–10). Although the Edict has proven notoriously difficult to interpret, Scheidel’s predictions about the extremely high costs of travel by road are broadly consistent with data from early eighteenth-century England, where transport by land was between five and twenty-three times more expensive than that by boat ( Scheidel 2014 , 9–10). According to these calculations, land transport would have been so costly as to be prohibitively expensive for moving many inexpensive, bulky goods, yet archaeological and documentary evidence attests to roads as an important mode of transport in the Roman world. In response to this apparent paradox, Adams (2001 , 2007 , 2012 ) has suggested that travelers and traders could employ alternative strategies that undercut the prices implied by the Edict . For instance, farmers might transport goods (and people) by using their own animals or rent them out less expensively when they were not needed elsewhere. Even these mitigatory strategies had their limitations, however, and they would not be effective for long-distance travel and transport. For these journeys, boats were an indispensible link.

While roads have left the most enduring mark on the archaeological record, maritime and fluvial routes were equally if not more important for the connectivity of the Roman world. Mariners traversed both short coastal journeys and longer sea lanes ( Arnaud 1992 , 2005 ; Sea Transport, Part 1 ). Sea travel was highly seasonal, and it is therefore likely that temporal and monetary costs varied throughout the year (cf. Casson 1995 ; Veg. Mil. 4.39; Cod. Theod. 13.9.3), but despite the variability in speed, cost, and route, maritime travel was on average the most efficient mode of transportation for goods and people available in antiquity, especially over long distances (as calculated by ORBIS “Sea Transport” according to wind speed; for historically reported sailing times, see Ramsay 1904 , 379; Braudel 1995 , 358–63; Casson 1995 , 282–88; Arnaud 2005 , 102; on the cost of maritime transport, see Arnaud 2007 and Scheidel 2013 , who argue that freight charges in Edict on Maximum Prices correlate closely to average sailing time).

At the interface between land and sea was an extensive network of ports and harbors. Roman quays, which usually reached to the shore, were ordinarily backed by large warehouses, most typically a horrea for grain storage. Their basic form has long been well known from Vitruvius ( De arch. 5.12; cf. Cass. Dio 40.11.1–5), as well as from visual depictions, which are especially well represented at Herculaneum and Pompeii. In addition, Roman harbors are an active area of research; an increasing number of these sites have been excavated thanks to advances in underwater archaeology, which has added substantially to our knowledge about the details of their construction (see further the gazetteer of sites in Sea Transport, Part 2 ).

In addition to sea lanes, many larger rivers were also navigable, but there is no comprehensive treatment of fluvial routes in the Roman world (the best overview is by Campbell 2012 , esp. 200–245). In Egypt, where documentary papyri offer a fuller picture of economic activity, the Nile was a particularly important route ( Adams 2001 ; Cooper 2011 ). Contracts cover every detail of the journey, mandating at which harbors the captain could moor (only the safest), the hours during which he could sail (the proper ones, presumably only during the day), and what to do in case of foul weather (see, e.g., P.Hib. II 198 (third century BCE), with Bagnall 1979 ; P.Ross.Georg. II 18 [140 CE]). These fluvial cargo ships also carried passengers: a letter from 7 BCE, for instance, records one Athenodorus’s efforts to secure passage for his sister (BGU XVI 2604). Even if a captain managed to land in the right harbors, sail at the right time, and avoid foul weather and pirates, travel by river was not always smooth sailing. On the Nile, the swift rapids of the cataracts required particular care and navigational skill. Ships had to be offloaded, and their passengers and cargo were transported overland to the east of the river, while the boat was guided down with cables from the shore (cf. Pomp. 1.9.51; Jaritz and Rodziewicz 1993 ; Between Egypt and Meroitic Nubia: The Southern Frontier Region ). Such challenging waters also invited daredevils. According to several sources, some locals took advantage of the swift currents at the first cataract to put on displays of their water rafting prowess (Strabo 17.1.19; Seneca Nat. 4A2.6–7). Visitors were also known to try their hands at the rapids; the Greek intellectual Aelius Aristides, for instance, proudly claimed to have taken part in such extreme watersports (Aristid. Or. 36.47–51 [Egyptian Discourse]).

Elsewhere in the Roman world, the role of the Tiber in transporting bulk goods to Rome, especially grain, is particularly well attested (cf. Strabo 5.2.5; see further Tuck 2013 , 237–44). After the fire of Rome, Nero used grain ships to transport debris away from the city to the marshes of Ostia (Tac. Ann. 15.43). Bridges built over the river presumably restricted the size of vessels that could reach the capital, but large, wide-bodied ships could still travel upriver to Rome, as depicted in a variety of reliefs, including the so-called Tiber sarcophagus and sections of Trajan’s column ( Tuck 2013 , 238). As a result of all this mercantile activity, the river was often thick with smaller boats (Lat. lintres, lembi, lenuculi , and lusoriae ), which helped to guide larger ships and to ferry goods to shore. This activity was such a central feature of Roman life that it was reflected by Propertius, who used the Tiber’s congestion as a metaphor for his love for Cynthia in his first books of poems (1.14.3-4). A century or so later, Pliny the Elder was more direct, calling the river the “merchant of all things produced in the whole world” ( HN 3.54). Together with the Nile, the Tiber attests to the importance of rivers for transporting goods and people in the Roman world.

All Roads Lead to Rome, Part II: Ordering Geographic Knowledge

In order to be properly used, the physical infrastructure for travel in the Roman world had to be made legible to Roman officials, merchants, and private travelers. In this section I examine some of the means through which this legibility was achieved: namely, labeling roads, collecting route itineraries, describing journeys, and making maps. These processes of ordering, collecting, and presenting information in textual or graphic form were at once functional and ideologically charged. Although this chapter’s focus is on the organization of knowledge related to travel, the intellectual and cultural processes involved can be understood as related to the practices of ordering and presenting other categories of knowledge throughout the Roman empire (see König and Whitmarsh 2007 , esp. 3–39; and König, Oikonomopoulou, and Woolf 2013 on libraries).

Roads were regularly marked with milestones (Lat. miliarium ), which recorded the distance from each terminus and the name of the magistrate or emperor who supervised their construction ( Chevallier 1976 , 39–34; Kolb 2004 ; cf. CIL I 2 21 [Pontinia; 253 BCE]). In this way, roads themselves expressed their place in the wider Roman transportation network. At least some roads also displayed longer and more detailed epigraphic itineraries, such as the fragmentary example from Augustodunum listing routes in northern Italy and southern Gaul ( CIL XIII 2681a, b [= ILS 5838], c = CIL XVII 2 490a–c [before 200 CE]; see also Chevallier 1976 , 52–53, and below). These markers served twin functions, simultaneously orienting travelers and expressing space as Roman; the process of building a road and linking it to the road network of the empire represented a significant centralized intervention in the landscape. The ideological function implicit in all milestones takes precedence in the Miliarium Aureum (Golden Milestone), which Augustus set up in the Roman forum in 20 BCE. By listing the principal cities of the empire and the distances to them as measured from the Severan Wall, the monumental mile marker both established the city as the center of the vast imperial road system and commemorated Augustus’s role in overseeing the Roman transporation network (Pliny HN 3.66; Suet. Otho 6.2; Cass. Dio 54.8.4; LTUR 3 [1996], 250–51; Brodersen 1995 , 254–60). In this sense, the Miliarium Aureum can be seen as an expression of the extent of Roman power and the connection between Roman roads and Roman control. Similarly, the Stadiasmus Provinciae Lyciae , a large monumental pillar from Patara, Lycia, dedicated to the emperor Claudius in 45/46 CE, records distances along Lycian roads ( SEG 44 1205 = SEG 60 1550; first publication: Şahın 1994 ; editio princeps : Işık, İşkan, and Çevik 1998/1999 ). The Stadiasmus , which was originally topped by an architrave and probably an imperial statue, provides a further link between the measurement of the Roman world and ideological expressions of Roman power and administration. Given that the Stadiamus was completed only a few years after the annexation of Lycia in 43 CE, it is likely that it did not reflect Roman improvements to the road network in Lycia, but rather that it reappropriated Lycian roads as Roman ones. Both the Stadiasmus and the Golden Milestone, therefore, serve an ideological function of expressing imperial control through infrastructures of knowledge, even if they only functioned as signposts in “a very extended sense” ( Jones 2001 , 168; see further Lebreton 2010 , esp. 67–76).

In addition to epigraphic routes, ancient geographic knowledge was also expressed through the rich tradition of textual itineraries (see Elter 1908 ; Kubitschek 1916 ; Dilke 1985 , 112–29; Elsner 2001 ; Salway 2001 , 2012 ). These texts make few pretenses to literature—they are usually little more than lists of places and the distances between them, although sometimes they added more colorful material directed at the tourist, pilgrim, or merchant—but they represent one way of making Rome’s network of land and sea routes legible and functional for their readers (thus Veg. Mil. 3.6 recommends using interaria for traveling; see further Adams 2001 ; Brodersen 2001 ). Some, such as the Itinerarium Burdigalense (see Elsner 2001 ), recorded actual routes; others are almost certainly compilations, such as the third-century CE Antonine Itineraries , which begin with the Pillars of Hercules and continue counterclockwise around the Roman empire. The sources from which they were compiled are unknown, but they may derive from epigraphic itineraries, such as the Augustodunum fragment discussed above. As functional as these texts seem, they also express a viewpoint about the world, its connections, and its center(s). In his analysis of the Itinerarium Burdigalense , for instance, Jaś Elsner shows that it was “the first Roman Christian text to present Jerusalem as the centre of the world” (2001, 195). The recognition that itineraries reflect ideologies is particularly significant because of their wide influence on historical and geographic works, such as Strabo’s Geography and Pliny’s Natural History (see Clarke 1999 , 197–210); larger monumental representations of space, such as the so-called Map of Agrippa; and more personal objects, such as the Dura Europos shield, a third-century CE parchment fragment, which graphically represents cities on the coast of the Black Sea and their distances ( Cumont 1925 , 1–15, 1926 , 323–37; Dilke 1985 , 121–23). Itineraries and their ideologies lay at the heart of Roman conceptualizations of their world.

Itineraries are only capable of encoding a single journey at a time. Maps, which graphically represent physical geography and routes in a two-dimensional space, have a greater density of information, and a single map could, in principle, express every possible path through the Roman world. Strict cartographic constructionists, such as Brodersen (1995 , 2001 ), take a consistent concept of scale as a key element of mapping, and they emphasize the differences between modern maps and Greek and Roman representations of geographical space. If we allow for a slightly broader definition of a map, which places more emphasis on perspective than on adherence to a consistent scale, however, it is possible to identify at least two distinct Roman cartographic genres: monumental maps, whose function is closely linked with their context, and smaller maps, usually on papyrus. Like itineraries, even these apparently very functional objects express strong views about the shape of the world and the meaning of travel through it.

Although there is evidence for several monumental maps in the Roman world (see Talbert 2012 ), only two survive, and both are fragmentary: the Forma Urbis Romae , an early third-century CE marble plan of the city of Rome, originally displayed in the Temple of Peace (extant fragments available in an online edition: http://formaurbis.stanford.edu ), and the cadastral plan of Roman centuriation, which was executed in 77 CE in Arausio (modern Orange) under the auspices of Vespasian (edict of Vespasian: AE 1952.44 = AE 1963.197 = AE 1999.1023; see further Piganiol 1962 ; Dilke 1973 ; Jung 2009 ). While the cadastral plan of Arausio imposes Roman order on territory appropriated by the state, it seems unlikely that the Forma Urbis Romae served a similarly practical purpose. In its original context, it was mounted more than four meters above the ground on an interior wall of the Temple of Peace; it would have been impossible for a viewer to get close enough to appreciate its detailed depiction of the layout of the city of Rome ( Trimble 2007 , 369–70). Even though much of it would have been illegible to an ancient viewer, the marble plan served an important ideological purpose by monumentalizing the meticulously ordered cartographic knowledge that it represented (see further Trimble 2007 ). If the connection between cartographic representation and state control is implicit in the Orange Cadasters and the Forma Urbis Romae , both of which depict space from the top-down perspective of Roman power (see further Nicolet 1991 , 95–122; Laurence 1998 ), it appears to have been explicit in another monument to imperial space, which does not survive, Agrippa’s “map” of the world. According to Pliny the Elder, Agrippa commissioned a “representation of the whole world for the city to look upon” ( HN 3.17) in the Porticus Vipsania, which Augustus completed after Agrippa’s death in 12 BCE (Plin. HN 3.17; Cass. Dio 55.8.3–4; Arnaud 2007–2008 ; Talbert 2010 , 136–37, 2012; see further GLM , 1–8 for testimony and LTUR 4 [1999], 151–53 on the Porticus Vipsania). The details of the map remain murky, but it is clear that whether it was a graphical representation of the world or a monumental inscription, like Augustus’s own Res Gestae , it connected the traversibility of the Roman empire with the princeps and his power.

These monumental maps were highly localized and tied to specific archaeological contexts; neither could have aided the traveler on the road. A second genre of maps, which either survive on papyrus or are shaped to resemble a papyrus roll, suggests the possibility of more portable maps that contained detailed route information. Two such maps are extant, although both seem too luxurious to have been used as a road atlas. An incomplete map, produced in the first century BCE or CE, appears on the front of the Artemidorus Papyrus, alongside a geographical text and highly skilled sketches of human faces, feet, and hands (MP 3 168.02; editio princeps : Gallazzi, Kramer, and Settis 2008 ; the reordering of the fragments first proposed by Nisbet 2009 and supported by D’Alessio 2009 , 36–41 has now been accepted by most scholars). A second, the so-called Peutinger Map, a medieval copy of what is likely a fourth-century CE original, survives as eleven parchment segments, which can be joined together to form a long and thin map that closely corresponds to the dimensions of a papyrus roll (cf. Talbert 2010 , 143; average dimensions of papyrus rolls are calculated by Johnson 2004 ). Although the Peutinger’s routes, distances, and place names show a clear dependence on itineraries—in some cases the map retains a place name’s oblique case, as if copying directly from an itinerary—this information was either out of date, inaccurate, or otherwise insufficient to be of practical value to the traveler in the fourth century ( Talbert 2010 , 108–17).

While neither of these maps seems likely to have been used to enable travel, both appear to share a set of cartographic conventions for depicting settlements, waterways, and land routes, and both seem to have distorted their dimensions in order to fit within the constraints of their medium (see Gallazzi, Kramer, and Settis 2008 , 275–308). The maps’ shared representational language suggests that there was a genre of cartography on papyrus that potentially could have extended to portable guides for travelers, even though neither the Artemidorus Papyrus nor the Peutinger Map was likely to have been used for this purpose. What, then, were these two maps used for? It is possible that both of these deluxe maps, like the Forma Urbis Romae , represented space and routes purely for intellectual and/or ideological purposes. For instance, Richard Talbert has persuasively argued that the Peutinger map does much more than represent land routes; in particular, he shows that the outlines of the land were drawn before roads, that Rome is positioned to occupy the map’s center, and that the map uses a variable scale that focuses attention on Italy ( Talbert 2010 , 2012 ). All these details suggest that the map’s composition does more than simply graphically represent information from itineraries. Rather, it reflects Romans’ knowledge about the connectedness of their world and how they imagined the shape of their empire.

Travel and Roman Power

In this section I turn from the physical and intellectual infrastructure of the Roman world to show how travel was integral to the construction, maintenance, and regulation of Roman power in both political and economic terms. Rome sat at the notional and, roughly, the geographic center of an enormous empire, which at its height occupied almost the entirety of the oikoumenē (inhabitable world). In both practical and ideological terms, the physical and intellectual infrastructure I have described in the preceding section defined the extent of the Roman world and enabled Rome to exercise centralized control over it: by transforming the landscape of the Mediterranean, it made even the farthest reaches of the empire accessible to agents of the state, to the army, and to individuals for personal and economic purposes; it marked that landscape as Roman through buildings and inscriptions; and by communicating and disseminating such information, it enabled Romans to make use of this infrastructure to move through their world.

If You Build It, They Will Come: Roman Infrastructure and Roman Military and Economic Power

A high proportion of travel in the Roman world can be attributed to either military or commercial interests; the needs of the Roman army and the desire for economic opportunities contributed to motivating and financing the infrastructure on which other forms of travel depended (see further Roman Army and Roman Economy ). The Roman road system, for instance, was essential to the movements of the army, whose maritime activities appear to have been limited to the transportation of supplies ( Roth 1999 , 189–95; see Bremer 2001 on the use of rivers to supply military camps). It is often argued that roads were constructed primarily to support military activities, and that commercial activities were only an indirect benefit ( Schlippschuh 1974 , 87; Kissel 1995 , 54–77; Roth 1999 , 214–17). While this may be an overstatement, it is clear that the construction of roads contributed to Rome’s economic and military hegemony throughout the Mediterranean in several ways ( Laurence 1999 , 11–26). As Ray Laurence’s analysis of the construction of the Via Appia shows, not only did the road serve a strategic function against the Samnites, but as a large public works project, it employed as laborers Roman citizens and their allies ( Lopes Penga 1950 ; Coarelli 1988 , 42; see Humm 1996 and Laurence 1999 , 15–16, on the construction of the Via Appia).

The same infrastructure that enabled the movement of the Roman army also enabled travel for economic purposes. Literary and documentary sources, especially papyri from Egypt; goods recovered from ancient shipwrecks; and the distribution of finds of specialized products such as Italian wine and snails attest to the quantity and variety of merchandise exchanged throughout the Roman world ( Scheidel 2011a ; Wilson 2011a , 2011b , 2012 , 287–88; see Tchernia 1983 , 1986 ; Panella and Tchernia 1994 on Italian wines; Marzano 2011 discusses the winter snail trade in Roman Egypt; traders themselves often formed associations; see P.Mich. 5 245 [47 CE], CIL III 14165 [Beirut; third century CE], Dig. 50.6.5.3–6, discussed by Meijer and van Nijf 1992 , 75–78). The degree to which trade was central to the Roman economy, however, remains a subject of debate ( Scheidel 2012a , 7–10, offers a concise summary). Economic formalists argue that the Roman Empire was governed by a market-based economy that integrated local economies on an empire-wide scale (argued for in detail by Temin 2013 ; Temin 2012 provides an overview; see Erdkamp 2013 and Manning 2014 for important limitations in our evidence for ancient economic activity). Economic substantivists, on the other hand, focus on the role of the state government in price-setting, requisitioning, and distributing goods; in Keith Hopkins’s “tax and trade model,” governmental and elite demands for taxes and rent drove market forces, creating reciprocal flows of taxable resources (1980 , 1995/1996 , 2009 ; Silver 2008 ). While these models differ in the degree to which the wider Roman market and, therefore, trade and infrastructure were important for influencing local prices and production, both models predict significant amounts of commerce, which would entail corresponding travel by merchants (for examples, see Meijer and van Nijf 1992 ).

Private individuals also traveled for education and employment, as the fourth-century CE curriculum vitae of a certain Conon discovered in modern Ayasofya in Eastern Pamphylia attests: he studied Latin and Roman law in Beirut, got his first job in Palestine, then moved to Antioch and later to Nicomedia; he died while abroad in Egypt, and his father retrieved his body ( SEG 26.1456 = 57.2120; Bean and Mitford 1970 , no. 49; see Gilliam 1974 on the date). Conon spent his life on the move; travel had penetrated the conditions and values by which he lived his life.

Slaves represent a final group of individuals whose travel can be attributed to the exercise of Roman economic and political power. It is a sobering fact that they likely represent the largest group of economic travelers. A central principle of slavery is the abnegation of basic elements of human agency, such as freedom of movement. Because many slaves were captured in war or by pirates, the sale of slaves often involved their transport (on the “Roman slave supply,” see Bradley 1994 , 31–56; Schumacher 2001 , 34–43; Scheidel 2005 , 2011b ; see Matthews 1984 on the importation of slaves to Palmyra). When slaves traveled, it was almost always at the behest of their owners (cf. Bradley 2000 , 118). It is very difficult to estimate the ratio of free persons to slaves in the Roman world, but it is safe to say that at many times and in many places in Rome’s history it was a slave society, and that the slave trade was a significant part of the Roman economy ( for an overview of Roman slavery, see Bradley, Freedom and Slavery;   Hopkins 1978 ; Bradley 1994 ; Schumacher 2001 ; Scheidel 2012b ).

Marking Movement: Arrival and Departure Rituals

Travel by officeholders and the emperor himself helped to articulate the contours of Roman power, playing an important role in governing and maintaining a geographically, culturally, and ethnically diverse territory. Because movement by Roman state officials was only experienced by those on the road, profectio (departure) and adventus (arrival) rituals played a central role in making their travel manifest to a wider public. Taken together, these rites constitute a form of Roman spatial religion. Making entrance into and exit from a city at crucially marked moments, they made the populace of each city fellow participants in officials’ movements. Both adventus and profectio rituals were highly choreographed, transactional performances between the governing and the governed. Through ritual practice the conceptual geography of the Roman world was temporarily inverted: the center was invited to imagine travel to the periphery, and the periphery was made into a temporary center. Like many formal characteristics of Roman religious and civic life, rites of arrival and departure had their origins in the Roman republic and were continued in the Roman imperial period, but the use of rituals to demarcate official movement is in fact part of a much wider Mediterranean phenomenon. They were an important feature of Seleucid kingship ( Kosmin 2014 , 142–80) and of their Achaemenid predecessors ( Briant 1988 ; Tuplin 1998 ).

Adventus rituals are best attested for the city of Rome itself, but they were equally significant outside of the capital ( Lehnen 1997 ; see also Brilliant 1963 , 173–77; Koeppel 1969 ; Alföldi 1970 ; Castritius 1971 ; MacCormack 1971 , 17–61, 1972 ; Millar 1977 , 28–30; Vitiello 2000 ; Roddy 2001 ). Like greeting ( apantēsis ) ceremonies for Hellenistic monarchs, Roman adventus rituals consisted of two distinct movements. Dignitaries were first met extramurally by crowds, speeches, and acclamations (Dion. Hal. Ant. Rom. 2.34.2; Cic. Mur. 68 [L. Murena], Sest. 68 [Cicero], ad Att . 4.1.5 = 73 SB [Cicero]; Livy 5.23.4 [Camillus], 27.50–51 [L. Nero], 45.35.3 [Paulus]; App. BC 1.33 [P. Furius]; Dio 51.19.2 [Augustus]; Suet. Cal. 4, 13 [Caligula]; Tac. Ann. 14.13.2–3 [Nero]; Joseph. BJ 7.68–74 [Vespasian]; see further Pearce 1970 ; Lehnen 1997 , 105–56; Kuhn 2012 , esp. 308 n58). Outside the walls an ordered citizenry presented itself to welcome and be viewed; ancient accounts suggest that the crowds were arranged by age, gender, and social status (cf. Livy 5.23.2; Menander Rhetor fr. 381 [Russell and Wilson]). Cicero boasts, presumably not without hyperbole, that he received an extreme version of this treatment on his return from exile: “Almost all of Italy carried me back on its shoulders” (Cic. Red. sen. 39).

In the second movement, the city gate was opened; once inside, dignitaries could expect to be greeted by a large crowd and a second set of acclamations and festivities (gate— Lehnen 1997 , 167–69; Suet. Nero 25.1; crowds— Lehnen 1997 , 156; Cass. Dio 63.4.1; Pan. Lat. 7[6].8.7; acclamations and festivities— RAC I 1950 s.v. “Akklamation” [Th. Klauser]; Lehnen 1997 , 169; Herod. Hist. 1.7.6, Amm. Marc. 16.10.9; Cass. Dio 63.20.5–6; Hist. Aug. SA 57.5). The city itself was decorated for the occasion: a procession carried branches, usually of laurel and palm; torches; incense; and statues of local gods (laurel and palm— Lehnen 1997 , 121–22; Plin. HN 15.137; Mart. 8.65; Cass. Dio 63.4.2; torches— Alföldi 1970 , 113; Lehnen 1997 , 122–23; Tert. Apol. 35.4; Amm. Marc. 21.10.1; Pan. Lat. 2[12].37.1–4; incense— Lehnen 1997 , 120; Martial 8.15.3; Pan. Lat. 11[3].10.5, 10[2].6.4; Cass. Dio 63.4.3; statues of local gods— MacCormack 1972 , 723; Josephus BJ 7.68–74). If the first movement of the adventus ritual presented a welcoming human presence, the second movement was significant for its spatial dynamics. The city was laid open and presented to its visitors. The arriviste also had a part to play; coinage from the second century CE shows a stereotypical adventus gesture, a raised right hand in a “gesture of benevolent greeting and power” ( Brilliant 1963 , 173, esp. figs. 4.24 [AU of Elagabalus], 4.26 [AR of Gordian III], and 4.28 [AR of Septimius Serverus]). Failure to welcome with sufficient pomp and circumstance might be taken as an offense (Livy 42.1.7).

Implicit in the process of arrival is a complex social, cultural, and religious negotiation between host and visitor; in exchange for his presence, the local community bestows on the visitor honors, and in some cases treats his arrival as the epiphany of a deity. The language of “visiting” ( epidēmia ) and “presence” ( parousia ), frequently used in Greek inscriptions to describe imperial visits, can refer as easily to divinities as monarchs ( epidēmia —e.g., Xen. Eph. 1.2.1, Panamara 176; parousia —e.g., Diod. Sic. 3.66.2, IG IV 2 , 1 122, line 34 [Epidaurus; fourth century BCE]; see further Pelling 1988 , 179; Koenen 1993 , 65; Burkert 2004 , 16; Platt 2011 , 142–43). Mark Antony’s visit to Ephesus in 41 BCE provides a particularly baroque illustration of both the thin line between arrival and epiphany as well as the transactional nature of an adventus ritual. According to Plutarch, the Roman general was met by “women dressed as Bacchants, men and boys dressed like Satyrs and Pans,” who “led the way into the city, which was full of ivy, thyrsus wands, harps, pipes, and flutes” (Plut. Ant. 24.3). Such an adventus could only be for Antony; the Ephesian ceremony, which greeted his arrival as if it were an epiphany of Dionysus, presciently responded to what would become an important feature of Antony’s Dionsyiac self-presentation just a few years later, when in 39/38 BCE he was celebrated in Athens as “The New Divine Dionysus” ( Theos Neos Dionusos; IG II 2 1043 lines 22–23 = SEG 130 [Athens; 38/37 BCE]; cf. Plut. Ant. 33.6–34.1, Cass. Dio 48.39.2, Socrates of Rhodes BNJ 192 F2).

Although literary sources generally present adventus ceremonies as spontaneous displays of affection, documentary sources reveal that extensive preparations were required ( Lehnen 1997 , 105–20). In addition to the cost of the ritual itself, dignitaries had to be fed and housed ( Millar 1977 , 32–35; cf. Philo Leg. 252–53 [Gaius], IGR III 1054 [Hadrian; from Palmyra, 130–131 CE], Cass. Dio 77.9.5–7 [Caracalla]). Avoiding such spontaneous displays could become a badge of honor. In a letter written to Atticus in August of 51 BCE, Cicero boasts about how little he and his retinue cost the people of Cilicia: “I tell you that … except for four beds and a roof no one takes anything—in many places they don’t even take a roof; they usually sleep in a tent” (Cic. ad Att. 5.16.3 = 109 SB; trans. Shackleton Bailey). His care not to burden the locals appears to have taken its toll on his own finances; in a letter written a few days earlier, he confesses that he is spending “a fortune” and that he is considering taking out a loan to cover his expenses (Cic. ad Att. 5.15.2 = 108 SB). Such parsimony was in good company—Suetonius reports that Augustus frequently made his arrivals and departures at night “in order that he not disturb anyone for the sake of their duty [to pay him respect]” (Suet. Aug . 53.2)—and it reflects how a Roman official could use or avoid ritual to shape his own public image.

The valences of adventus differed depending on where the ritual occurred. Outside of Rome, the emperor’s arrival temporarily transformed a city into a capital; embassies from throughout the empire came to visit him ( Millar 1977 , 38–39; IGR IV 1693 [Aezani; 4 CE]; IGR IV 349 [Pergamon; 117 CE]), and according to the Digest , a man barred from living in Rome could not live in any city in which the emperor was residing ( Millar 1977 , 39; Dig . 48.22.18 pr. 1). In addition to raising a city’s prestige, the visit of a Roman dignitary could also confer tangible benefits in the form of gifts. This eugertistic practice seems to have become so well-established by the fourth century that a panegyric for Constantine includes anticipated donations as part of an invitation to visit Autun (Pan. Lat. 7[6].22.3–4; cf. Millar 1977 , 37).

Adventus at Rome worked differently. Understood in terms of Arnold van Gennep’s (1960) tripartite schema for rites of passage, it marked the reincorporation into the capital of the emperor or Roman official and his retinue, as well as the celebration of his return home and his military successes. The Roman triumph may be interpreted as representing a particularly elaborate version of this ritual. Both triumph and adventus helped to make travel and military success visible and comprehensible to an immobile population; according to Livy’s narrative for 167 BCE, Paulus’s voyage up the Tiber to Rome in a ship loaded “with Macedonian spoils” (Livy 45.35.3) was witnessed by crowds lining the riverbanks. Despite such similarities, there are significant differences, not least in that triumphs were formally granted by the Senate and the triumphator was the primary bearer of the costs (see further Beard 2007 , esp. 187–96 on the costs). While highly successful generals could use triumphs to display their largesse and their exotic conquests, Cicero’s unsuccessful campaign for a triumph during the early 40s BCE shows the perils of triumphing on the cheap. One of the obstacles that he faced was the need to divert resources away from his potential triumph to repay a loan he owed to Caesar (cf. ad Att. 7.8.5 = SB 131; December 25 or 26, 50 BCE).

When it came time to leave, departures ( profectiones ) were also marked by ritual. Rites of departure often receive only the barest of mentions in Roman sources, but they performed an important function in publicizing and displaying official travel and military campaigns (see Livy 42.49.1–6 [discussed below] and Herod. 6.4.2; the most comprehensive scholarly treatment is by Lehnen 2001 ; see also Koeppel 1969 ; Rüpke 1990 , esp. 125–51). In one of the fullest extant descriptions of a profectio ritual, Livy describes the departure of the Roman expedition against the Macedonian king Perseus in 171 BCE:

During those days the consul Publius Licinius, after the pronouncement of vows on the Capitol, departed in military dress from the city. This ritual ( res ) was always conducted with great dignity and grandeur, but it especially attracted the citizens’ gaze and attention, when they followed a consul about to face an enemy great and noble in virtue or fortune. Not just concern for their duty, but also a desire for spectacle ( spectaculum ) drew them to see their leader, in whose authority and judgment they entrusted the preservation of the entire republic. They thought about the many contingencies of war, how uncertain the outcome of fortune was … would they soon see him with his victorious army ascending the Capitol to the same gods from whom he set out or would they soon offer this pleasure to their enemies? (Livy 42.49.1)

Livy’s narrative emphasizes the civic participation engendered by the people’s gaze; as they look on the spectacle of the profectio ritual, they contemplate the realities of war and anticipate Licinius’s return (cf. Livy 44.22.17). Andrew Feldherr (1998 , 11) has suggested that the profectio connects past and present, center and periphery, offering “the same vista that Livy’s monumentum provides to the audience who gaze upon it.” In Feldherr’s reading, this ceremonial departure helps Romans to visualize the events on the battlefield far from their city and connects the populace to the expedition as they watch.

While Romans hoped for and expected state officials to return, commemoration of imperial visits was even more important outside of Rome, where they were rarer. An anonymous panegyric for Constantine from 311 CE, for instance, imagines how the citizens of Augustodonum will react to his depature: “When you depart, the community will hold onto you” (Paneg. 5[8].14.4). Joachim Lehnen has plausibly suggested that the immediate context for this comment is Constantine’s restoration of the city (2001, 16), but the language expresses more broadly its aims to commemorate and extend the imperial presence. The process of monumentalizing an imperial visit took many forms. Several communities held festivals commemorating the day on which the emperor entered the city (P.Oxy. 31 2553 [late second or early third century CE], line 11; Didyma 1, 254, lines 9–13 [Didyma; dated to 212 CE or ca. 230 CE]; cf. FD III 4 [1970], no. 307, col. iii [undated]). Others commemorated the emperor’s absence through dating formulae, which expressed the time elapsed from the moment of the imperial “visit” ( epidēmia ) or “presence” ( parousia ), an apparent adaptation of the standard practice of dating by regnal year (cf. Woodhead 1981 , 59–60; Ma 1999 , 53–54 describes the practice of commemorating a Hellenistic monarch’s “absent authority and his having-been-there”). Such dating procedures were highly local—the date of an imperial visit holds most significance for the community in which it occurred—but they also expressed a city’s place and importance in the Roman world more broadly. In both cases, the emperor’s visit becomes a significant moment in the community, encoded into its religious and civic calendar.

“I Was Here”: Pilgrimage, Tourism, and Individual Travel

While rituals of arrival and departure make an immobile community fellow participants in official movements, members of those communities also experienced travel themselves. Travel looks rather different from the perspective of individuals, such as the pair of Roman citizens, in all likelihood soldiers (cf. Bernand 1969 , 101–3), who left one of the few Latin inscriptions in Philae on the South Pylon of the Temple of Isis:

I, Lucius Trebonius Oricula, was here. I, Gaius Numonius Vala, was here in the thirteenth consulship of the emperor Caesar, eight days before the Calends of April. ( I.Philae 147 = ILS 2.2 8758 = CIL III 74; 2 BCE)

Lucius’s and Gaius’s rather superficial engagement with Philae stands in contrast to the deep religious significance that the site held for the numerous pilgrims who left dedications at the temple of Isis in Greek and demotic Egyptian. The contrast between these religious pilgrims and Lucius and Gaius, unlikely forbearers of the genre of narcissistic travel graffiti, raises important questions about the nature of two closely linked categories of travel, tourism and pilgrimage, which can be difficult to distinguish from one another in an ancient context (cf. Dillon 1997 ; Rutherford and Elsner 2005 ; Rutherford 2013 , 12–14; Morris 1992 discusses pilgrimage more broadly). Both types of journey are undertaken by individuals, groups, and community representatives; both focus on visiting and viewing specific sites, objects, and spectacles; and finally, both sets of travelers search for memorable experiences, which are often commemorated in text, inscription, and votive offerings. They differ primarily in degrees of religiosity and intensity of experience: pilgrimage implies religious engagement with the site and an expectation that the journey there will facilitate contact with the divine (although some, such as Scullion 2005 , downplay the difference in religiosity between the two categories). The term pilgrimage often carries with it a series of associations related to Christian tradition, but there are clear differences between pagan and Christian religious travel, even if there are also points of overlap (see Elsner and Rutherford 2005 : esp. 3). For Christians, pilgrimage carried with it a distinct set of conventions and expectations, that need not apply to the pagan case: namely that the journey was “always performed by an individual, often as a penance, sometimes with a deeply spiritual significance” ( Rutherford 2013 : 12; on Christian pilgrimage, see Pilgrimage ).

Further distinctions are made by both modern scholars and ancient sources between individual, personally motivated religious journeys and travel undertaken on behalf of a community. State-sponsored pilgrims were regularly referred to in Greek as theōroi , a term that ancient sources associated with the word for god ( theos ; cf. Lysimachus in BNJ 336 F 9; Harpocration Θ 19 s.v. theōrika = 154–55 Dindorf, Pollux II 55; both are cited and discussed by Rutherford 2013 , 145 n14–16), but may actually be related to the Greek verb for viewing ( theaomai ; see Rutherford 2000 , 136–38, and 2013, 4–6, 144–46, on the meanings and etymology of the term). In Greek and Roman contexts, state-sponsored travel to religious sites and spectacles is well-attested from the sixth century BCE through the third or fourth centuries CE, but there is evidence for forms of pilgrimage in the Mediterranean from at least the second millennium BCE ( Elsner and Rutherford 2005 , 10–11).

The evidence for pilgrimage and tourism is primarily textual, although some material evidence survives, especially from votive offerings ( Rutherford 2013 , 17–34, reviews the sources of evidence for theōria in the Greek and Roman worlds). Pilgrims worshipping Isis, for instance, traveled to shrines in Germany, Italy, Sicily, Greece, Asia Minor, and Egypt, recording their travel in inscriptions often adorned with representations of feet, which can be understood as votive offerings or commemorations, or even as expressing a wish for a safe homecoming (these inscriptions are collected and analyzed by Takács 2005 ). In addition, several other literary texts of the Roman period register sacred journeys (notably Aelius Aristides’s Sacred Tales and Lucian’s De Dea Syria ; see Galli 2005 ; Lightfoot 2005 ; Petsalis-Diomidis 2005 ). Pausanias’s Tour of Greece is often read as a series of pilgrimage narratives to each of the sacred sites that the author visits (e.g., Elsner 1992 ; Rutherford 2001 ). The yearly journey ( theōria ) to the tomb of Achilles on the west coast of the Troad described in Philostratus’s Heoricus is even more explicitly a pilgrimage ( Rutherford 2009 ; Heroicus 53.4–23); likewise, the discourse of pilgrimage is central to Philostratus’s Life of Apollonius of Tyana , which describes the sage’s visits to temples, tombs, oracles, and healing sites ( Elsner 1997 ).

Apart from intellectuals for whom sacred travel was part of their identity as sophists, sages, and wise men, pilgrimage was an integral part of the reign of the emperor Hadrian, who spent more than half of his rule on the road, making frequent sacred journeys to significant religious sites, especially in Greece ( Millar 1977 , 36; Holum 1990 ; Rutherford 2001 , 49–50). Having been initiated into the Eleusian mysteries, either as a student or later as Archon of Athens in 112 CE, he made several visits to Eleusis, presumably during his travels to Athens as emperor, in 124, 128, and 131 CE ( Halfmann 1986 , 116–17; Clinton 1989 , 1516–25); he retraced Trajan’s journey to Mount Casius (Jebel al-Akra) on the Syrian coast ( Anthologia Graeca 6.332; Spartianus, Vita Hadriani 14.3); and, finally, he traveled to Troy twice, first in 124 CE (Philostr. Her. 8.1) and again in 132 CE, to visit Ajax’s tomb ( Halfmann 1986 , 199; Philostr. Her. 67–70; see Halfmann 1986 , 188–210 for further examples of Hadrian’s travels during his reign). Troy was a long-standing site of pilgrimage in the ancient world, which had been visited by Xerxes (Hdt 7.43), Alexander the Great (Arr. Anab. 1.11.5–7, Plut. Vit. Alex . 15.7–8), L. Cornelius Scipio (Livy 37.37.1–3), Caesar, (Strabo 13.1.27), and Augustus (Cass. Dio 54.7), among others (see Minchin 2012 ). Through his many pilgrimages, Hadrian reanimated the sacred sites of the Greek past with his presence and codified Greece as a site of religious and cultural memory.

An important aspect of pilgrimage in the Greco-Roman world was the role it played in the performance and formation of the identity of individuals and communities (see esp. Kowalzig 2005 ; Hutton 2005a ; Lightfoot 2005 ; Rutherford 2013 , 217–22). Whereas participation in international festivals, spectacles, and rituals expressed a community’s membership in a larger group (for the significance of athletic festivals for communities’ expressions of their own identities, see van Nijf 2001 ), pilgrims themselves had the opportunity to encounter other people, cities, and religious communities in the course of their travels. Inscriptions throughout the Roman world hint at the potential diversity of languages, cultures, and motivations that travelers might encounter; the cultural interaction promoted by travel; and individuals’ own strategies of self-representation. Many of these aspects of cultural interaction in modern travel are central to the anthropology of tourism (see further Bruner 2005 and Comaroff and Comaroff 2009 , who emphasize the commodification of ethnicity in the tourist trade).

A prime site for studying such cultural interactions is Egypt, a popular destination for tourists and religious pilgrims during the Roman period, whose arid climate has helped to preserve a rich record of their visits ( Hohlwein 1940 ; Foertmeyer 1989 ; Frankfurter 1998 , esp. 166–67, 218–19; Tourism and Pilgrimage). Egypt’s pyramids were included in the canonical list of the seven wonders of the world, codified in the late Hellenistic period, and the Pharus lighthouse was frequently added to subsequent lists ( Brodersen 1992 ; Höcker 2010 ). In addition, travelers visited and often left their marks in the form of graffiti at a range of Egyptian sites, such as the Memnonion at Abydos (originally the mortuary temple of Seti I and subsequently a temple of Osiris, which later housed an oracle of Bes; see Perdrizet and Lefebvre 1919 ; Rutherford 2003 ), the Sphinx at Gaza, on which visitors inscribed poems ( IMEGR 127–28 [first or second century CE], 130 [second or third century CE]; cf. É. Bernand 1983 ), and, most famously, the two colossi of Memnon at Thebes (see Travel and Pilgrimage for a further list of sites). The pair of colossi—in fact two monumental statues of Amenhotep III—were identified by Greek and Roman travelers as depictions of Memnon, the mythological king of Ethiopia. Evocative Latin and Greek graffiti record visitors’ firsthand experience of the mysterious dawn “singing” for which the monument was famous (Strabo 17.1.46; Paus. 1.42.3; Letronne 1833 ; Bernand and Bernand 1960 ; Bowersock 1984 ; Théodoridès 1989 ; see Travel and Pilgrimage ). Through their celebrity, the colossi became sites for literary and cultural interaction. In a cycle of four elegiac poems, which are closely modeled on Sappho, Julia Balbilla, an elite Roman woman of Syrian origin, commemorates Hadrian’s visit in November 130 CE (Memnon 28–31; Bowie 1990 ). Patricia Rosenmeyer shows how the poems balance encomium for the emperor with Balbilla’s own lyric voice and desire for poetic fame ( Rosenmeyer 2008 ). Balbilla’s composition therefore both looks inward, toward recording and commemorating their experience, and also outward, toward subsequent visitors, readers, and poets.

Travel in the Roman Cultural Imaginary

Balbilla’s lyric voice, which inscribes official movements in an individual’s subjective experience, can be read as participating in a wider genre of literature that incorporates travel within its narrative and poetic imagination. Movement—of people, goods, and ideas—was deeply embedded in the lived experience of the Roman world in its infrastructure; ritual practice; and individuals’ journeys as tourists, pilgrims, and economic agents. This final section treats the place of travel in the Roman cultural imaginary, considering how literature represents and responds to the Roman impetus for exploration and how literary texts participate in shaping Roman conceptualizations of the travel, movement, and space of their world. It is impossible to separate the practice of travel from the representation of it, and in a sense this final section presents a false dichotomy between praxis and representation. And yet many Roman texts can give us insight into how people at different places and times conceived of travel and geography. My focus in this section reflects a growing emphasis on reading travel, space, and place in ancient literary texts through the lens of a nexus of critical approaches collectively termed the “spatial turn,” which represent the translation of the methodologies of cultural geography, anthropology, and urban studies to the analysis of literary, artistic, and cultural practice.

The study of narrative has taught readers to be alert to the relationship between a text’s fabula (the underlying sequence of events) and its sujet (the narrative arrangement and presentation of those events), to use two terms that originated in Russian formalism (e.g., Tomaševskij 1965 ) and have been widely applied in the field of narratology (see de Jong 2014 , esp. 5–6). In narrative, the relationship between fabula and sujet is mediated by one or more “focalizers,” whose point of view is either implicitly or explicitly reflected in the way a story is told. When considering texts’ presentation of space and travel, there is a parallel set of distinctions at work: namely, the relationship between movement, real or imagined, and the narrative representation of it. Movement looks very different depending on where the observers stand; the narratology of space provides a framework and vocabulary for describing the contribution of narrative to the presentation and depiction of movement in literature. Two such narrative modes were outlined by Pietro Janni (1984) , who drew on the earlier work on spatial perception and presentation by the psychologist Kurt Lewin (1934) : (1) hodological perspectives, which present movement from the perspective of the traveler, and (2) cartographic perspectives, in which travel is described top-down, from a bird’s-eye-view. Michel Rambaud (1966 , 1974 ) posited a tripartite model of space in Caesar’s works that distinguished among “geographic,” “strategic,” and “tactical” space (see further Riggsby 2006 , 21–45), which I discuss below. Rambaud’s geographic space corresponds roughly to Janni’s cartographic perspective; his categories of strategic and tactical space, however, divide hodological perspectives into the linear progression of, say, columns of soldiers (strategic space) and the surveying gaze (tactical space). These perspectives—either in Janni’s bipartite or Rambaud’s tripartite division—need not be mutually exclusive, and narratives often switch seamlessly between them, but they represent very different narrative and descriptive logics, which cannot simply be scaled up or down to change spatial perspectives.

Hodological Perspectives: The Chronotope of the Road

In his classic essay, “Forms of Time and of the Chronotope in the Novel,” Mikhail Bakhtin explores the historical development in the novelistic genre of what he calls the chronotope, “the intrinsic connectedness of temporal and spatial relationships that are artistically expressed” (1981, 84). At the conclusion of a sweeping analysis, ranging from the first (Chariton and Petronius) to the sixteenth (Rabelais) centuries CE, he articulates a chronotope of the road, in which “time, as it were, fuses together with space and flows in it (forming the road); … it often happens that all the events of a novel either take place on the road or are concentrated along the road (distributed on both sides of it)” ( Bakhtin 1981 , 244). The chronotope of the road represents a hodological view of travel, that is, a highly restricted narrative perspective, which reflects the perceptions of the traveler without orienting the reader in a broader geographic and cartographic context (cf. Janni 1984 , 79–158, esp. 79–90; Purves 2010 , 145–48; Lightfoot 2014 , 22–26). It is a powerful structuring device in Roman literature. To offer one example of this narrative strategy in action, Horace’s “Journey to Brundisium” (Hor. serm. 1.5; 36/5 BCE) adopts a strict hodological perspective, which seems to model itself on the form and style of an itinerary or travel guide. As Emily Gowers notes, the poem’s ego -narrator is occupied with “peevish, diary-style entries on the minutiae of travel: dyspepsia, nocturnal disturbances, sore eyes, low-level incidents” (2012, 182). Its hodological first-person narration resists translation onto a cartographic perspective: although the poem begins as a journey south along the Via Appia, the narrator somehow finds himself on the Via Minucia (Hor. serm. 1.5.94; cf. Gowers 2012 , 205). Such resistance appears to be part of a larger strategy by which the poem’s tightly focused perspective obscures the larger diplomatic and political implications of the journey, substituting the mundane and personal for the lofty and the civic (cf. Reckford 1999 ); geographic perspective thereby becomes an index for other registers of content. If Horace’s companion in the poem, Heliodorus, is to be identified with the author of the Theamata Italia , as Gowers suggests (2012 , 183), this connection becomes even more explicit. More broadly, Satires 1.5 might be seen as part of a larger genre of Latin travel poetry, including Lucilius’s Iter Siculum , which Porphyrio names as Horace’s model ( ad Sat. 1.5.1), as well as several poems that survive either only as titles or in fragments: Varro’s Menippean satires, such as Marcipor “Varro on the Road,” Periplous “Circumnavigation,” and Sesculixes “Half-Ulysses”; Caesar’s poem Iter (cf. Suet. Jul . 56); Valgius (Morel, FLP 106); Ausonius’s Mosella ; and Rutilius Namatinaus’s De reditu suo siue Iterum Gallicum (as collected by Gowers 2012 , 183–84).

Bakhtin himself connected the chronotope of the road with Roman fiction, namely Petronius’s Satyrica and Apuleius’s Metamorphoses , both of which revel in the first-person restricted perspective of travel. The extant fragments of Petronius’s novel, which was likely composed during the reign of Nero, open with the protagonist Encolpius and his traveling companion Ascyltus lost and going in circles. “Wherever I went,” he says, “I kept coming back to the same place” (6.4). After they each independently get directions from the same old woman, they find that they have been led into a brothel. This episode makes the novel’s restricted hodological perspective part of its joke: they both follow the same directions and end up at the same unsavory place because they cannot imagine their movement cartographically. The chronotope of the road, punctuated by digressions and diversions, organizes the fragments of the Satyrica as we have them: the pair travel throughout Magna Grecia, visiting cities such as Massilia, Croton, and, possibly, Puteoli (if this is the “Greek city” mentioned at 81.3; see further Rose 1962 ). Apuleius’s Metamorphoses , written in the latter half of the second century CE, takes the hodological perspective further; like its Greek models, such as the (Ps.-)Lucianic Onos (second century CE[?]), travel is narrated through the experiences and perspectives of Lucius, a human who has been transformed into an ass. (P.Oxy. 4762 also contains a Greek fragment of an ass novel, but the papyrus, which was copied in the third century CE, postdates the Metamorphoses , even though the text it contains might predate Apuleius’s novel.) Lucius is barred from leaving the road, and because he is treated as an animal, rather than a human, he lacks agency to determine his own movement and direction. Thus narrative form responds to and reflects the protagonist’s restricted movements.

The chronotope of the road is a narrative strategy and organizational principle for other Greek texts written under the Roman empire, such as Achilles Tatius’s novel, Leucippe and Clitophon (second century CE), which departs extremely rarely from its highly restricted, first-person narrative perspective. (Perhaps the most striking departure comes in an ethnographical description of the habits and lifestyles of Egyptian outlaws living in the Nile Delta 4.12.) In each of these texts, the experience of reading mimics that of the traveler (cf. de Temmerman 2012 , 521–22). The road is also a central organizing principle in two quasi-technical genres of Roman-era prose: the itinerary and the periplous (circumnavigation). Pausanias’s Tour of Greece (third quarter of the second century CE) can be read as a transformation and elevation of these genres, further augmenting them with long ethnographical narratives of the places he visits. In other words, his text combines narration of his first-person experiences of travel with detailed description and reporting (see further Elsner 2001 ).

The Bird’s-Eye-View: Cartographic Narrative

In contrast to the tightly restrictive, hodological mode of presentation I have just described, narratives can also “zoom out” to view the world and movement within it as if gazing down from above. This impossible, cartographic view is a highly desirable one, and it is often correlated with increased knowledge and an omniscient narrative voice, particularly in ethnographic descriptions. Thus, the island of Britain is imagined as triangular by the geographers and ethnographers of the Roman world, such as Caesar ( BGall 5.13), Strabo (4.5.1), Pomponius Mela (3.50), and Tacitus ( Agr. 10.3, although the shape to which he compares the island may be hopelessly corrupted: Is a scutula an eye-patch, an elongated dish, a small shield? See Woodman 2014 , 133–34 with Ogilvie and Richmond 1967 , 168–170).

Few works, if any, can consistently maintain such distant cartographic perspectives. To look more carefully at Caesar’s De bello gallico (written either during or shortly after Caesar’s campaign in Gaul from 58 to 51 BCE), Andrew Riggsby characterizes the function of each of its narrative perspectives as follows: “People fight in tactical space, move through strategic space, and inhabit geographic space” ( Riggsby 2006 , 25, cf. Rambaud 1974 ). Caesar’s autobiographical narrative of travel for the purpose of military conquest, therefore, combines the chronotope of the road—exemplified by his descriptions of “forced marches” ( magna/maxima itinera , e.g. BGall 1.7, 10, 37, 38, etc.), bridges ( BGall 1.13), and other technologies of travel—with strategic and ethnographical views of the landscape. These points of view are highly significant for the meaning of each instance of travel. Thus Riggsby argues that Caesar’s tactical space, a localized representation of the field of battle articulated by its natural features (e.g., his description of the town of Vesontio, BGall. 1.38.4–7), should be understood in the context of Roman agrimensores , whose surveying activities for Roman centuriation described and depicted localized environments from a bird’s-eye-view ( Thulin 1971 ; Riggsby 2006 , 32–45). For Caesar and the agrimensores , the process of describing a landscape from the strategic perspective is an important precursor to possessing it. By contrast, Caesar’s cartographic gaze, which is perhaps most obvious in the famous opening description of the tripartite division of Gaul (1.1), falls into a different category of spatial representation. By virtue of its extreme distance, this point of view severs the intimate connection between description and possession of territory; in its place, it gives the narrator an omniscient ethnographical vista from which to describe territories and peoples. From this vantage, the Gauls’ courageousness ( fortis ) can be correlated with their geographic position vis-à-vis the Germans and Rome: the closer one is to Germany, the braver one must be (Caes. BGall. 1.1; Riggsby 2006 , 28–32; cf. Dench 2005 , 49–54 for a reading of Caesar’s manipulation of ethnography). By varying its spatial perspectives, the text’s narrative economy is able to reveal and conceal elements of the Roman experience of Gaul.

Travel and Discourses of Empire and Society

Scholarship has been particularly attuned to the relationship between geography, the depiction of movement in Roman poetry, and the ideology of the Augustan empire (e.g., Myers 2008 ; Lindheim 2010 , 2011 ). To take a well-known example, Virgil’s Aeneid (19 BCE), which takes the wandering Homeric Odyssey as a central model, encodes travel into the founding of the Roman state: the poem’s narrative of Aeneas’s journey, its descriptions of the cities he visits, and its ethnography of the Italian landscape write the process of traveling and its complications into Roman identity in the Augustan age (see Thomas 1982 , esp. 93–107 on ethnography; Horsfall 1989 on Aeneas as colonist; Quint 1993 ). The Virgilian connection between travel and Roman cultural identity is mirrored in Livy’s account of Aeneas’s travels to Italy (Livy 1.1); the two genres—epic and historiography—present these origin myths differently, but both emphasize travel as essential to the foundation of the Roman state.

The teleology of the Aeneid ’s travels establishes a clear sense of center, but, as Philip Hardie (1986) has argued, the poem imagines Rome’s periphery to be a (literally) boundless one, “an empire without an end” ( imperium sine fine , Verg. Aen. 1.279). The connection between travel and state foundation in the Aeneid is indicative of a broader trend for the poetics of travel and space to invite and frame discussion of the political, the social, and the moral in the poetry of Virgil and his contemporaries: for example, the countryside of the Eclogues and the ethnographic descriptions in Georgics 2 (Virg. Geo. 2.83–176; see further Thomas 1988 , 170–90), Horace’s Sabine Villa ( Epist. 1.7.1–2, 1.16.1–16, Odes 1.17.1–2) and other country retreats ( Epist. 1.10.15–21), Horace’s Odes 1.3 (Virgil’s journey), Tibullus’s country retreat (1.5.21–34, where the countryside represents an inversion of the poet’s relationship with his beloved), and the dynamics of city and country in Propertius (see, e.g., Lindheim 2010 , 2011 ). In Roman poetry, travel therefore offers a space to discuss a range of other issues, such as political power, imperial ambitions, and Roman urbanism. This tendency becomes a central subject of Ovid’s exile poetry, in which his rupture from Augustus consigns him to the “edges of the Earth” on the Black Sea (e.g., Trist 1.1; see Williams 1994 on Ovid’s construction of his exiled voice).

The focus on travel is not limited to the poetry of the Augustan era. Thus, Statius’s Silvae (Books 1–3, 93 or 94 CE; Book 4, 95 CE) has been shown to implicate travel in the political and social world of the poet and his patrons ( Parrott 2013 ). Identity and empire are even more explicitly linked to travel in other genres, such as geography, historiography, encyclopedic and scientific literature, oratory and oratorical theory, and prose fiction. Just as physical travel encouraged the contemplation of empire and the confrontation with other peoples and places, literary representations of movement offered space for discourses about the relationship of ethnicity, identity, and imperial power.

The Narrative of the Quest and Travel as the Search for the Self

For my final pair of case studies, I return to the personal experience of travel with a form of travel story often called the narrative of the quest. In a subset of the Greek and Latin prose fiction of the second and third centuries CE, travel narratives take on deeper significance, and movement through space becomes a kind of pilgrimage, signaling a journey toward greater enlightenment and knowledge of the self. Insofar as it is read as a narrative of pilgrimage, Pausanias’s Tour of Greece might be understood as an example of this type of travel narrative (see further the essays in Alcock, Cherry, and Elsner 2001 ; Hutton 2005b ; Pretzler 2007 ; Travel and Travel Writing ).

Philostratus’s Life of Apollonius of Tyana , composed in the first half of the third century CE ( Jones 2005 , 2–3), narrates the peregrinations of the wise man to the four corners of the Roman empire (cf. Elsner 1997 , 29): north as far the Caucasus (2.2), east through Babylon (1.21–2.1) to India (2.17–3.50), south to Egypt and Ethiopia (5.43–6.28), and west to Spain and the Pillars of Hercules (4.47–5.10). Apollonius’s travels are intimately connected to his own discovery of his philosophic and sagacious self. From the Brahmans in India, for instance, Apollonius learns both the seemingly impossible, levitation ( meteōroporein , 3.15, 17) and foreknowledge ( prognōsis , 3.16), as well as what lies at the core of their powers, self-knowledge ( eidenai heauton , 3.18). In perhaps the most famous passage of the Life , he announces that he has traveled to Egypt in order to find the sources of the Nile: “My own purpose in coming here was to visit you and the sources of the Nile. It would be pardonable to miss these in one who got only as far as Egypt, but for one who has advanced into Ethiopia, as I have, it would be a disgrace to pass them by, and not draw some learning from them” (6.22.1; trans. Jones). Apollonius expresses his desire for knowledge of the river’s sources in terms of the language and metaphors of travel and physical movement (cf. Elsner 1997 : 32); it is not enough to hear about them from his experienced ( ethas , 6.22.2) guide. As Elsner (1997) shows, Apollonius’s journeys, which emphasize the extent of the Roman empire, become a central source of his own wisdom and sagacity as well as a potential refuge from the tyranny that resides in the center. Thus, when Apollonius is tried before Domitian in Rome, he repeats a saying of the Brahmans in his own self-defense (3.18). His travels also provide him with authority, especially in religious matters. In book 5, for instance, he uses his travels to India to justify “correcting the rites of the Egyptians” (5.25).

Apuleius’s Metamorphoses can be read as a reinterpretation of the narrative of the quest, in which the links between pilgrimage and self-discovery outlined by Apollonius take the form of physical changes (see further Harrison 2001–2002 ). Like Philostratus’s Life of Apollonius of Tyana , the Golden Ass intersects with the world of the Roman empire, although the protagonist Lucius never encounters the highest echelons of Roman power ( Millar 1981 ). Early in the text Lucius, an overly curious sophist, is transformed through a magical mishap into an ass (3.24); once he is transformed, the narrative is in the simplest terms an account of Lucius’s quest for roses, the antidote to his magical transformation. During his life as an ass, Lucius is passed from owner to owner; as a beast of burden, his freedom of movement is restricted, and he is forced to travel or face beating (in a persuasive reading, Bradley 2000 argues that the novel explores Roman slavery through Lucius’s transformation and forced migration). His salvation comes in the eleventh and final book, when he is told by the goddess Isis, who appears in a dream vision, that he will find a garland of roses at a procession dedicated to her (11.6). Whether it is read as an entertaining parody or a serious religious experience (see further Winkler 1985 ), book 11 narrates Lucius’s return to human form and his conversion to Isiac religion. He finds and eats the roses at the festival of Isis (11.13) and is restored to his former state. As a result of his journey and his experience, he becomes an initiate in Isiac cult (11.23–24) and a devotee of Isiac religion, eventually moving to Rome (11.26). The novel closes with Lucius preparing to become an initiate of Osiris (11.30). Like Philostratus’s Life of Apollonius of Tyana , the Golden Ass connects travel to a process of pilgrimage, enlightenment, and self-knowledge; Apuleius turns this paradigm on its head, externalizing in Lucius’s grotesque form as an ass an experience that remains internal and, presumably, deeply personal for other sagacious pilgrims.

Lucius’s experience in the Metamorphoses is a test case for the extent to which travel can be a transformational experience for individuals in the Roman world. Yet for all the changes that he undergoes, he concludes the novel in more or less the same physical form that he began it. (He now has a shaved head and has changed his wardrobe.) Such an ending suggests that the experience of travel leaves few physical traces on individuals and landscapes. Travel is an ephemeral process, one that must be continually commemorated and maintained or cease to exist. Yet despite, or perhaps because of, the challenges inherent in preserving travel, it remains a central organizing principle of many literary texts from the Roman world. Its centrality further suggests how important the movement of people and goods was to all facets of the Roman experience. From emperors to slaves, orators to merchants, travel through the world and the infrastructure that enabled it were defining features of the practicalities, realities, and imaginations of Roman life.

Suggested Reading

Casson (1974) remains a valuable overview of travel in the Roman world; Adams (2001) contains many excellent studies; Scheidel (2014) uses the ORBIS model to redraw the map of the Roman world in terms of connectivity. For more specific topics, the following have proven particularly helpful. Road travel: Kolb (2000) ; Adams (2007) . Sea travel: Arnaud (2005) . River travel: Campbell (2012) . Imperial travel: Millar (1977) ; Halfmann (1986) . Itineraries and mapping: Dilke (1985) ; Brodersen (1995) ; Gallazzi, Kramer, and Settis (2008) ; Talbert (2010) . Economics and the cost of travel and transport: Adams (2012) ; Scheidel (2013) . Adventus and profectio rituals: Lehnen (1997 , 2001 ). Pilgrimage: Elsner and Rutherford (2005) ; Rutherford (2013) . Literature: Rambaud (1966 , 1974 ); Bakhtin (1981) ; Janni (1984) ; Riggsby (2006) ; Purves (2010) .

Abbreviations

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The 10 Landmarks That Tell Rome’s Timeless Tale

Posted: April 19, 2024 | Last updated: April 19, 2024

From ancient Roman ruins like the Colosseum to iconic sites like St Peter’s Basilica, there is something for every traveler in Rome.

1. Trevi Fountain

The Trevi Fountain is one of the most iconic sights in Rome, Italy. It has a long and fascinating history that dates back to ancient Roman times, and it’s been a popular tourist destination for centuries.

The fountain is best known for its beautiful Baroque architecture, which was designed by Nicola Salvi in 1762.

It’s also famous for its many legends – one of the most popular is that if you throw a coin into the fountain, you will be sure to return to Rome someday.

Trevi Fountain is best visited at night when the fountain is lit up, and the sculptures are illuminated.

2. Colosseum

The Colosseum is one of the most recognizable landmarks in all of Rome. Built-in 70AD and originally known as the Flavian Amphitheatre, this ancient Roman site has been the backdrop of some of history’s most important events.

The sheer size and scale of the Colosseum are breathtaking, making it one of Rome’s must-see landmarks.

I highly suggest purchasing tickets ahead of your visit to save yourself the time wasted standing in the ticket queue.

I also recommend either booking a guided tour or purchasing the audio guide to help you get a better understanding of the Colosseum.

3. Roman Forum

The Roman Forum is perhaps the most historically significant of all Rome’s landmarks. This ancient site was once the center of social and political life in the Roman Empire. As you walk around, you’ll set foot on paths that were once trodden by some of history’s greatest rulers.

​4. Vatican City

Vatican City is the world’s smallest sovereign state and the spiritual center of the Catholic world. The city is home to a number of impressive landmarks, including St. Peter’s Basilica, the Sistine Chapel, and the Vatican Museums. Additionally, please note that modest dress is expected when visiting the Vatican.

5. St Peters Basilica

St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome, Italy , is one of the most famous landmarks in the world and a must-see for any traveler to this incredible city.

This awe-inspiring church stands as an impressive testament to Renaissance architecture with its grand dome, intricate sculptures, and breathtaking artwork.

Inside you can explore five centuries of history while admiring some of Michelangelo’s most iconic works, like his Pietà sculpture. A visit to St Peter’s Basilica will leave you feeling inspired and humbled by its grandeur!

6. Sistine Chapel

The Sistine Chapel is one of the most famous landmarks in Rome, Italy. Located within Vatican City and adjacent to St Peter’s Basilica, this awe-inspiring chapel has been a popular destination for travelers since its inception in the 16th century.

You will be awed by the Renaissance architecture and artwork at this historic site. Inside, you can see Michelangelo’s famous frescoes on the ceiling, along with other captivating works spanning five centuries of history.

7. Vatican Museums

The Vatican Museums in Rome, Italy, are a must-see for any traveler to this incredible city. Located within the walls of the Vatican City, these museums offer visitors an opportunity to explore centuries of art and history from ancient times until today.

You’ll find galleries filled with sculptures, frescoes, tapestries, and other stunning works representing various eras of art.

The vast collection includes masterpieces by renowned artists such as Michelangelo and Raphael.

8. Largo di Torre Argentina

Largo di Torre, Argentina, is one of the most famous landmarks in Rome, Italy. Located in the heart of the city, this historic site provides a unique opportunity for travelers to explore some of Rome’s oldest and most iconic architecture.

The Largo di Torre Argentina is best known as the location where Julius Caesar was assassinated in 44 BC.

Today it serves as an archaeological excavation site with ruins from four Republican-era temples dating back to the 4th century BC.

9. Basilica of Santa Maria Maggiore

The Basilica of Santa Maria Maggiore is one of the four major basilicas in Rome named after St. Mary Major.

It stands out for its beautiful exterior decorated with marble and mosaics, as well as its elaborate interior featuring a wooden ceiling painted with frescoes.

Santa Maria Maggiore also hosts important religious events on special holidays, like Christmas and Easter.

10. Fontana dei Quattro Fiumi

The Fontana dei Quattro Fiumi is perhaps one of the most iconic landmarks in Rome. This grand fountain stands at the center of Piazza Navona and features four figures depicting four rivers from various continents.

This majestic structure was designed by Bernini in 1651 and has been considered a masterpiece ever since.

11. Palatine Hill

Palatine Hill is the centermost of Rome’s seven hills and one of the most famous landmarks in Italy. It was once home to the richest citizens and where many Ancient Roman emperors resided, including Augustus.

Today it is known for its archaeological ruins, outdoor gardens, and sweeping views of the city. Visitors can explore its rich history through its ancient ruins and breathtaking views.

12. Spanish Steps

The Spanish Steps have been one of Rome’s most iconic landmarks since its construction in 1725. The 138 steps were designed by Francesco de Sanctis and Giuseppe Valadier and led up to the Piazza di Spagna.

The stairs are a popular spot for tourists, with its beautiful views of Rome and many shops and restaurants around the steps. Visitors can enjoy the views and stroll up the stairs for a closer look at this famous landmark.

13. Pyramid of Cestius

The Pyramid of Cestius , or Piramide di Caio Cestio, is a tomb built in 12 BC for the magistrate Gaius Cestius Epulo.

Standing 37 meters (121ft) tall, this pyramid is the only ancient Egyptian-style pyramid in Rome and one of the best-preserved ancient monuments in Italy.

14. Villa Borghese

Villa Borghese is a large public park located in the heart of Rome. It was originally established as a private estate in 1605 and opened to the public in 1903. The villa features three lakes, lush gardens, beautiful sculptures, and many attractions for all ages.

Visitors can explore the park’s various trails and admire its many monuments, including the famous Four Rivers Fountain and the Temple of Aesculapius.

15. Via Appia Antica

The Via Appia Antica is an ancient Roman road that stretches over 300km and was built in 312 BC. It is one of the oldest and best-preserved roads in Italy and a popular tourist destination for those looking to explore the ruins of ancient Rome.

Visitors can explore the many catacombs along the road, visit numerous historic sites, or walk along the iconic cobblestone path.

16. Arcibasilica di San Giovanni in Laterano

Also known as the Lateran Basilica, this is one of Rome’s most famous landmarks. This incredible building is the official papal seat and home to many sculptures, frescos, and beautiful mosaic floors.

17. Pantheon

The Pantheon is one of the best-preserved temples in Rome and a must-see for all visitors.

Built during the 2nd century AD, it is made up of concrete and brick walls and features a huge, round dome that has been standing since its original construction.

18. Nero’s Domus Aurea

Nero’s Domus Aurea is an iconic landmark in Rome that served as Emperor Nero’s palace. Nero had planned to build a new city called “Neropolis” and the Domus Aurea was a part of that project to transform Rome.

It was built in 64 AD and is now a popular tourist destination for those interested in learning more about Roman history.

19. Piazza Navona

Piazza Navona is one of the most famous squares in Rome.

It was built in the 15th century as a public square and featured three stunning fountains, including the Fountain of Four Rivers by Bernini.

The Piazza Navona is a popular spot for locals and visitors alike to spend time outdoors, enjoy an Italian gelato, or even participate in the open-air art market.

20. Capitoline Museums

The Capitoline Museums are located on the top of Capitoline Hill and offer visitors a glimpse into ancient Roman history.

The museums house an impressive array of sculptures, including the iconic statue of Marcus Aurelius, as well as paintings and other artifacts from antiquity.

21. Piazza Venezia

Located at the foot of Capitol Hill, it is home to many famous monuments like the Altare della Patria (Altar of the Fatherland).

This monument was built in honor of Victor Emmanuel II, who unified Italy and is also known as “the Unknown Soldier.”

22. Museo Nazionale Romano

Museo Nazionale Romano in Rome , Italy, is a must-visit for tourists and history buffs alike.

The National Roman Museum is actually 4 separate locations, each housing different artifacts, and exhibits.

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Problematic Tourism on Ancient Roman Sites

Written by: amineddoleh & associates llc.

Much has been said about the post-pandemic travel boom. There has been an unprecedented level of global travel in recent years, measured by rising hotel costs and airline reports of strong demand . Despite a possible economic recession, global travel is showing no signs of slowing down any time soon. Not even rising inflation can stem this tide.

The increase in travel means an increase in the tourism industry.  Cultural heritage sites worldwide have been slammed with visitors. And while growing interest in cultural tourism can be a positive thing, the impact of increased tourism at sites presents unique a unique risk. Whether by mistake or through concerted effort, irreversible destruction of tourist sites by tourists themselves is a growing problem. With more people comes more responsibility to protect vulnerable pieces of cultural heritage – before the damage is done.

Tourism can be a good thing. Experiencing new culture can be beneficial to individuals, because it broadens their perspectives. And, for responsible tourists, it is possible to visit cultural sites sustainably. However, reckless tourists can do more harm than good.

Overtourism and Revenge Travelers

It’s time to brace for the selfie-takers.

Residents of UNESCO-protected World Heritage Sites have faced never-before-seen surges of tourists to towns all around the world. One recent target has been the 800-person village in Hallstatt, Austria, which many believe to have inspired the architecture featured in Disney’s smash-hits Frozen and Frozen II . The daily influx of nearly 10,000 tourists, plus the hubbub of activity they bring, has forced the villagers to erect a wooden fence between their village and the gawking visitors. The fence, though unsightly, does a fine job in obstructing their charming panorama from view. The effect is less imposing than if they were to “pull an Elsa” and construct a castle of ice, but villagers hope it will still be effective in curbing the number of daily visitors.

Erecting a fence as a simple measure to deter unwanted tourists. This is not a crazy solution, nor is it cruel – these cultural sites must be protected. For delicate places, such as Hallstatt, the risk of destruction caused by overtourism is simply too great.

One need look no further than Angkor Wat, Cambodia to understand the devastation left in the wake of too many tourists.  But it has not only been the impact of increased foot-traffic that has destroyed the city’s delicate sites.  With tourists comes the trappings of the tourist industry. This means that even the most cautious and conscientious tourists who travel to the site are part of the problem, when they make use of these commercialized offerings.

When Angkor Wat became a popular spot for visitors, the flood of tourists disrupted the peaceful site. Flashy shopping malls, a neon theme park, and even a golf course were built. Prior to the commercialization, this land once held a peaceful, provincial village. As construction plowed ahead and visitors increased, water sources in the surrounding areas began to face an alarming increase in pollution levels. Untreated sewage flushed from hotels flooded into previously pristine waterways. The hospitality industry further complicated matters by draining underwater reservoirs to service their guests. Many sacred temples, including the Bayon , with its Buddha-carved towers, have begun to sink, because of the environmental impact of draining the reservoirs.

What would the site be like without the tourists? Cambodia got a taste of turning back the clock when the site closed to visitors under pandemic-era restrictions. One travel writer remarked that the effect was a reversal back into “a sleepy country village.” Cultural heritage experts certainly saw the benefit of sites being given a rest from the damaging tourist industry. However, the pause was short-lived.

In 2022 and 2023, the global travel time-out has rebounded in full-force. The opening of global borders and accessibility of vaccines served as a green-light for anyone feeling cabin fever in lockdown. In fact, reports are skyrocketing of “revenge travel” as a way to make up for time lost sitting at home for two years.

Not all of these tourists are flocking to Europe, but it does seem to be a target. Countries like Italy, France, Spain, and Portugal have proven to be hotspots. Italy continues to be a target for pent-up travelers, due to its vast and storied collection of art and architecture.

All Roads Lead Tourists to Rome

Not every tourist is a boy scout.

Some tourists purposely vandalize sites to make a statement . Whether as a show of activism, a declaration of love, or simply as a way to blow off steam after travel delays, tourists’ intentional acts target precious sites. Pompeii , the Roman Colosseum , and the Roman Forum have all fallen victim to predatory tourists. Not all vandals are the same – each site seems to attract a different kind of criminal.

Pompeii , for example, addresses thefts. There is an entire exhibit at the site showcasing stolen artifacts travelers have “sent back” to Pompeii . The reason for the travelers’ sudden change of heart? Usually, it’s reports of “bad luck” from carrying around the stolen objects. Vandalism, on the other hand, is more common in structures such as the Colosseum and Roman Forum . The draw of vandals to these sites seems to be a show of good old-fashioned bravado.

In 2020, an Irish tourist who merrily carved his initials into the Colosseum posted a gleeful selfie of himself at the site, pre-vandalism. The smile was wiped off his face when he was promptly arrested and faced with a $2,400 fine.

Just last week, the Colosseum fell victim to another vandal: a British tourist sketched “Ivan+Haley 23” on the wall of the Colosseum . Shockingly, this is the fourth reported vandalism act at the Colosseum this year so far. Unfortunately for Ivan, an American tourist named Ryan Lutz filmed the vandalism in-action. Lutz attempted to show the footage to Colosseum guards, but the guards refused to take the video seriously. In response, Lutz uploaded the content to social media. This alerted the Carabinieri to the incident.

The video enabled the Carabinieri to use facial recognition technology to make photographic comparisons of possible suspects. The latest press release from the Italian police force stated that they believe they have identified the culprit (Ivan Dimitrov, 27, who also goes by the name Ivan Hawkins) and plan to bring criminal charges. This includes penalties of up to $15,000 in fees and five years in prison.

One wonders at the blind courage this lover must have had, in order to boldly deface the precious architecture in broad daylight. However, with the influx of tourists, the very act of vandalism is easier to get away with than ever. Large crowds make it nearly impossible to monitor individual guests. Moreover, when large groups of tourists enter sites, without a guide, it becomes even harder to keep tabs on tourist activity.

According to some experts, tourists’ bad behavior may be the result of their perceptions about Italy . Due to cinematic masterpieces, such as “La Dolce Vita” and “Roman Holiday,” some people view Italy as “a place devoid of rules and laws, where everything is art and therefore nothing is art.” In a lawless place, tourists let their hair down, and coupled with the anonymity of travel, people are on their worst behavior. Sadly, this leads to both intentional and accidental damage and destruction.

Sites have an interest in allowing visitors to enjoy themselves and move freely about the space.  Sites that impose too many rules regulating tourist behavior risk losing ticket sales. No tourist wants to be chastised while on vacation. This presents a difficult balance between making sites appealing for tourists, by not imposing rules that are too restrictive, while also making sure tourists do not harm precious pieces of cultural heritage. The Italian economy thrives on the tourist dollar. As a result, even though tourists can cause destruction, the communities that the tourist revenues serve benefits from their visits.

The best solution for striking this balance is to require tourists hire an official guide for vulnerable cultural heritage sites. When knowledgeable guides from reputable organizations lead bespoke tours, through sites, the result is both a win for the cultural heritage site and the overall tourist experience.

Unintentional Destruction

Unintentional destruction of cultural heritage is also a pressing issue, and it is one that may best be mediated by governmental action. The rise of unintentional damage is no surprise considering the clumsiness of the everyday traveler. By no means a troupe of ballerinas, tourists range from rowdy high school seniors on their end-of-year trip to honeymooners blissfully unaware of their surroundings. In short, accidents happen.

Take, for example, the Spanish Steps. Wine spills, dropped chewing gum, and the general wear-and-tear of tourists clambering up-and-down the steps prompted government involvement to prevent tourist traffic. A tourist caught sitting on the steps may be fined upwards of $400. This rule was enacted to “guarantee decorum, security and legality.” Actions prohibited by the rule include those “not compatible with the historic and artistic decorum” of the city’s famous center.

Despite issuing few actual fines, the regulation has been surprisingly effective in curbing unintentional destruction. As it turns out, all it takes is a stern warning from a uniformed officer to embarrass a tourist into modifying her behavior. The effectiveness of a warning shows how well regulations, such as this one governing the Spanish Steps, and a similar rule preventing tourists from diving into the Trevi Fountain , work to prevent unintentional destruction. Tourists generally do not want to cause harm and are eager to modify their behavior when asked.

Those looking to avoid a warning from an Italian officer (or worse, be forced to shell out euros for the actual fine) would be wise to hire an official tour guide. Official tour guides are well-versed in the behavioral rules governing each site and can customize a tour based on individual needs. Moreover, experienced guides know the site’s layout and construction. This enables the guide to carefully navigate tourists through a delicate site, which reduces the risk of damage caused by tripping or mistakenly veering into off-limits areas.

In all, the benefits of a bespoke tour given by an official guide work to protect cultural heritage in ways that rules alone cannot. Plus, tour guides also have insider knowledge of the best place to get gelato, post-site visit.

Paths Forward for Italy’s Tourist Sites

Italy has many options for the proactive protection of national cultural heritage sites. Regulations promulgated to protect sites become even more effective when they are announced in conjunction with marketing measures aimed at bringing tourists to a site. This serves to give tourists a better idea of the risk that they encounter when they visit sites, even before arrival.

An incredibly effective way to accomplish this goal is to impose regulations for a site alongside its growth in tourism. One example, the underwater cultural heritage site of Baia, Italy, illustrates the impact of working to proactively prevent cultural heritage destruction stemming from problematic tourism from the start.

Baia, Italy (also pronounced Baiae), the once above-land site of Nero’s beachside vacations, has recently emerged as a new tourist destination. The draw is not hard to understand: an ancient resort town, is now underwater . And, it has a historical reputation for being known as the Monte Carlo of Ancient Rome.

The recent effort to market Baia as a tourist town have happened alongside new written rules to guide tourist behavior. Tourist behavior related to visits to the site by canoeing, underwater diving, and snorkeling  are all clearly delineated by the Parco Archeologico Sommerso di Baia in their Regulation. Moreover, since 2012, authorizations are needed for individual tour operators who meet certain requirements to conduct activities at sea.

This makes it easy for tourists to use of official guided tours. By hiring a reputable guide, they may travel thoughtfully, passionately, and sustainably. These regulations are not overburdensome on individual activity. Without them, excited tourists may find them difficult to follow and adhere to in heat of the moment. The success of these regulations is likely due to the involvement of reputable tour guides, who ensure that all visitors have a customized, bespoke and enriching experience – while keeping the site safe for generations to come.

However, not all visitors will make use of knowledgeable guides, and some of hellbent on behaving badly and causing destruction. In light of these acts, in April of this year , Italy’s Council of Ministers approved a bill that would impose fines between €10,000 and €60,000 on individuals responsible for defacing heritage. In addition, these individuals may also face criminal charges. In a country full of evocative historic sites and cultural treasures, Italy continues to update its laws to protect and preserve these mandmade masterpieces for future generations.

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Cite this page as: The American Institute for Roman Culture, “Problematic Tourism on Ancient Roman Sites” Ancient Rome Live/ Amineddoleh & Associates LLC . Last modified 07/12/2023. https://ancientromelive.org/problematic-tourism-on-ancient-roman-sites/

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1,700-year-old Roman ruins discovered atop much older Neolithic sacred spring

Archaeologists think veneration of the freshwater spring started in Neolithic times.

Archaeologists in France have unearthed the Roman-era remains of a landscaped pool and wall around a natural freshwater spring; and they think it was built on the ruins of a much older, probably sacred site that may date back 4,500 to 6,000 years, to the Neolithic period.

The Roman ruins are thought to date to the third century, during the Late Empire period, and the artifacts found there include the ceramic face of a deity or Medusa that was placed near the water source. The site also contains ceramic shards and coins from the late Roman Empire , as well as pieces of flint, including a fragment of a dagger, that are thought to have been offered there in Neolithic times.

According to a translated statement from the French National Institute of Preventive Archaeological Research (INRAP), the ruins were found near the village of Chamborêt, about 12 miles (20 kilometers) north of the southwest-central city of Limoges.

The oldest evidence of structures at the site are traces of a dry-stone building with a rectangular plan and postholes and sandpits from at least one other building that was probably made of wood. Although the excavations haven't determined how old these structures are, artifacts found among them suggest the structures were part of an early home and farm, the statement said.

Related: Roman temple found in France may have been dedicated to war god Mars

Roman-era ruins

After that, the site seems to have been abandoned for many centuries. But it was revived in the third century A.D. during the Roman occupation of the region. The archaeologists have found many fragments of bricks and tiles from that time; some show obvious signs of heating, which suggests a fire was maintained in the area.

The source of the freshwater spring itself, which is still active, seems to have been enclosed at that time by a wooden box buried in a pit filled with flat stones. This, in turn, fed a landscaped pool or basin that was surrounded by an arc or wall of granite blocks, which contained ceramic fragments from the third and fourth centuries.

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The Roman-era ruins were built on top of the ancient site. "Water clearly played a major role in the occupation from the earliest times," the researchers said in the statement.

The archaeologists also found many late Roman-era coins and a ceramic fragment that depicts part of a face. It is thought to be that of a deity or Medusa, a motif that  was common in late Roman times and was thought to ward off evil. The ceramic face seems to have been placed above the landscaped basin fed by the spring and may have represented a water deity.

Ancient weapons

Although the Roman-era ruins around the Chamborêt spring are now the most prominent, there are signs that it was frequented by people in much more ancient times, the statement said.

The archaeologists unearthed several pieces of flint at the site, including a fragment of a "Grand Pressigny" dagger, which is named after the Grand-Pressigny archaeological site in central France where several of these Neolithic long blades have been found .

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Around the source of the spring, the team also discovered evidence of a pit, which was probably Neolithic and indicated its use at that time, according to the statement.

Further explorations would enable archaeologists to better understand the site and how it was used at different times in history.

"These installations shed light in an unusual way on the occupation in Late Antiquity," the statement said. "This type of rural site undoubtedly illustrates a stage in the gradual transition to the … early Middle Ages."

Tom Metcalfe is a freelance journalist and regular Live Science contributor who is based in London in the United Kingdom. Tom writes mainly about science, space, archaeology, the Earth and the oceans. He has also written for the BBC, NBC News, National Geographic, Scientific American, Air & Space, and many others.

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