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• Section 6 - Perspectives : Avoiding Poorly Regulated Medicines & Medical Products During Travel
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Medical Tourism

Cdc yellow book 2024.

Author(s): Matthew Crist, Grace Appiah, Laura Leidel, Rhett Stoney

• Categories Of Medical Tourism

The Pretravel Consultation

Risks & complications, risk mitigation, additional guidance for us health care providers.

Medical tourism is the term commonly used to describe international travel for the purpose of receiving medical care. Medical tourists pursue medical care abroad for a variety of reasons, including decreased cost, recommendations from friends or family, the opportunity to combine medical care with a vacation destination, a preference to receive care from a culturally similar provider, or a desire to receive a procedure or therapy not available in their country of residence.

Medical tourism is a worldwide, multibillion-dollar market that continues to grow with the rising globalization of health care. Surveillance data indicate that millions of US residents travel internationally for medical care each year. Medical tourism destinations for US residents include Argentina, Brazil, Canada, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, the Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Germany, India, Malaysia, Mexico, Nicaragua, Peru, Singapore, and Thailand. Categories of procedures that US medical tourists pursue include cancer treatment, dental care, fertility treatments, organ and tissue transplantation, and various forms of surgery, including bariatric, cosmetic, and non-cosmetic (e.g., orthopedic).

Most medical tourists pay for their care at time of service and often rely on private companies or medical concierge services to identify foreign health care facilities. Some US health insurance companies and large employers have alliances with health care facilities outside the United States to control costs.

Categories of Medical Tourism

Cosmetic tourism.

Cosmetic tourism, or travel abroad for aesthetic surgery, has become increasingly popular. The American Society of Plastic Surgeons (ASPS) reports that most cosmetic surgery patients are women 40–54 years old. The most common procedures sought by cosmetic tourists include abdominoplasty, breast augmentation, eyelid surgery, liposuction, and rhinoplasty. Popular destinations often are marketed to prospective medical tourists as low cost, all-inclusive cosmetic surgery vacations for elective procedures not typically covered by insurance. Complications, including infections and surgical revisions for unsatisfactory results, can compound initial costs.

Non-Cosmetic Medical Tourism

Cancer treatment.

Oncology, or cancer treatment, tourism often is pursued by people looking for alternative treatment options, better access to care, second opinions, or a combination of these. Oncology tourists are a vulnerable patient population because the fear caused by a cancer diagnosis can lead them to try potentially risky treatments or procedures. Often, the treatments or procedures used abroad have no established benefit, placing the oncology tourist at risk for harm due to complications (e.g., bleeding, infection) or by forgoing or delaying approved therapies in the United States.

Dental Care

Dental care is the most common form of medical tourism among US residents, in part due to the rising cost of dental care in the United States; a substantial proportion of people in the United States do not have dental insurance or are underinsured. Dentists in destination countries might not be subject to the same licensure oversight as their US counterparts, however. In addition, practitioners abroad might not adhere to standard infection-control practices used in the United States, placing dental tourists at a potential risk for infection due to bloodborne or waterborne pathogens.

Fertility Treatments

Fertility tourists are people who seek reproductive treatments in another country. Some do so to avoid associated barriers in their home country, including high costs, long waiting lists, and restrictive policies. Others believe they will receive higher quality care abroad. People traveling to other countries for fertility treatments often are in search of assisted reproductive technologies (e.g., artificial insemination by a donor, in vitro fertilization). Fertility tourists should be aware, however, that practices can vary in their level of clinical expertise, hygiene, and technique.

Physician-Assisted Suicide

The practice of a physician facilitating a patient’s desire to end their own life by providing either the information or the means (e.g., medications) for suicide is illegal in most countries. Some people consider physician-assisted suicide (PAS) tourism, also known as suicide travel or suicide tourism, as a possible option. Most PAS tourists have been diagnosed with a terminal illness or suffer from painful or debilitating medical conditions. PAS is legal in Belgium, Canada, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Switzerland, and New Zealand, making these the destinations selected by PAS travelers.

Rehab Tourism for Substance Use Disorders

Rehab tourism involves travel to another country for substance use disorder treatment and rehabilitation care. Travelers exploring this option might be seeking a greater range of treatment options at less expense than what is available domestically (see Sec. 3, Ch. 5, Substance Use & Substance Use Disorders , and Box 3-10 for pros and cons of rehab tourism).

Transplant Procedures

Transplant tourism refers to travel for receiving an organ, tissue, or stem cell transplant from an unrelated human donor. The practice can be motivated by reduced cost abroad or an effort to reduce the waiting time for organs. Xenotransplantation refers to receiving other biomaterial (e.g., cells, tissues) from nonhuman species, and xenotransplantation regulations vary from country to country. Many procedures involving injection of human or nonhuman cells have no scientific evidence to support a therapeutic benefit, and adverse events have been reported.

Depending on the location, organ or tissue donors might not be screened as thoroughly as they are in the United States; furthermore, organs and other tissues might be obtained using unethical means. In 2009, the World Health Organization released the revised Guiding Principles on Human Cell, Tissue, and Organ Transplantation, emphasizing that cells, tissues, and organs should be donated freely, in the absence of any form of financial incentive.

Studies have shown that transplant tourists can be at risk of receiving care that varies from practice standards in the United States. For instance, patients might receive fewer immunosuppressive drugs, increasing their risk for rejection, or they might not receive antimicrobial prophylaxis, increasing their risk for infection. Traveling after a procedure poses an additional risk for infection in someone who is immunocompromised.

Ideally, medical tourists will consult a travel medicine specialist for travel advice tailored to their specific health needs 4–6 weeks before travel. During the pretravel consultation, make certain travelers are up to date on all routine vaccinations, that they receive additional vaccines based on destination, and especially encourage hepatitis B virus immunization for unvaccinated travelers (see Sec. 2, Ch. 3, Vaccination & Immunoprophylaxis & General Principles , and Sec. 5, Part 2, Ch. 8, Hepatitis B ). Counsel medical tourists that participating in typical vacation activities (e.g., consuming alcohol, participating in strenuous activity or exercise, sunbathing, swimming, taking long tours) during the postoperative period can delay or impede healing.

Advise medical tourists to also meet with their primary care provider to discuss their plan to seek medical care outside the United States, to address any concerns they or their provider might have, to ensure current medical conditions are well controlled, and to ensure they have a sufficient supply of all regular medications to last the duration of their trip. In addition, medical tourists should be aware of instances in which US medical professionals have elected not to treat medical tourists presenting with complications resulting from recent surgery, treatment, or procedures received abroad. Thus, encourage medical tourists to work with their primary care provider to identify physicians in their home communities who are willing and available to provide follow-up or emergency care upon their return.

Remind medical tourists to request copies of their overseas medical records in English and to provide this information to any health care providers they see subsequently for follow-up. Encourage medical tourists to disclose their entire travel history, medical history, and information about all surgeries or medical treatments received during their trip.

All medical and surgical procedures carry some risk, and complications can occur regardless of where treatment is received. Advise medical tourists not to delay seeking medical care if they suspect any complication during travel or after returning home. Obtaining immediate care can lead to earlier diagnosis and treatment and a better outcome.

Among medical tourists, the most common complications are infection related. Inadequate infection-control practices place people at increased risk for bloodborne infections, including hepatitis B, hepatitis C, and HIV; bloodstream infections; donor-derived infections; and wound infections. Moreover, the risk of acquiring antibiotic-resistant infections might be greater in certain countries or regions; some highly resistant bacterial (e.g., carbapenem-resistant Enterobacterales [CRE]) and fungal (e.g., Candida auris ) pathogens appear to be more common in some countries where US residents travel for medical tourism (see Sec. 11, Ch. 5, Antimicrobial Resistance ).

Several infectious disease outbreaks have been documented among medical tourists, including CRE infections in patients undergoing invasive medical procedures in Mexico, surgical site infections caused by nontuberculous mycobacteria in patients who underwent cosmetic surgery in the Dominican Republic, and Q fever in patients who received fetal sheep cell injections in Germany.

Noninfectious Complications

Medical tourists have the same risks for noninfectious complications as patients receiving medical care in the United States. Noninfectious complications include blood clots, contour abnormalities after cosmetic surgery, and surgical wound dehiscence.

Travel-Associated Risks

Traveling during the post-operative or post-procedure recovery period or when being treated for a medical condition could pose additional risks for patients. Air travel and surgery independently increase the risk for blood clots, including deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary emboli (see Sec. 8, Ch. 3, Deep Vein Thrombosis & Pulmonary Embolism ). Travel after surgery further increases the risk of developing blood clots because travel can require medical tourists to remain seated for long periods while in a hypercoagulable state.

Commercial aircraft cabin pressures are roughly equivalent to the outside air pressure at 6,000–8,000 feet above sea level. Medical tourists should not fly for 10 days after chest or abdominal surgery to avoid risks associated with changes in atmospheric pressure. ASPS recommends that patients undergoing laser treatments or cosmetic procedures to the face, eyelids, or nose, wait 7–10 days after the procedure before flying. The Aerospace Medical Association published medical guidelines for air travel that provide useful information on the risks for travel with certain medical conditions.

Professional organizations have developed guidance, including template questions, that medical tourists can use when discussing what to expect with the facility providing the care, with the group facilitating the trip, and with their own domestic health care provider. For instance, the American Medical Association developed guiding principles on medical tourism for employers, insurance companies, and other entities that facilitate or incentivize medical care outside the United States ( Box 6-07 ). The American College of Surgeons (ACS) issued a similar statement on medical and surgical tourism, with the additional recommendation that travelers obtain a complete set of medical records before returning home to ensure that details of their care are available to providers in the United States, which can facilitate continuity of care and proper follow-up, if needed.

Box 6-07 American Medical Association’s guiding principles on medical tourism 1

• Employers, insurance companies, and other entities that facilitate or incentivize medical care outside the United States should adhere to the following principles:
• Receiving medical care outside the United States must be voluntary.
• Financial incentives to travel outside the United States for medical care should not inappropriately limit the diagnostic and therapeutic alternatives that are offered to patients or restrict treatment or referral options.
• Patients should only be referred for medical care to institutions that have been accredited by recognized international accrediting bodies (e.g., the Joint Commission International or the International Society for Quality in Health Care).
• Prior to travel, local follow-up care should be coordinated, and financing should be arranged to ensure continuity of care when patients return from medical care outside the United States.
• Coverage for travel outside the United States for medical care should include the costs of necessary follow-up care upon return to the United States.
• Patients should be informed of their rights and legal recourse before agreeing to travel outside the United States for medical care.
• Access to physician licensing and outcome data, as well as facility accreditation and outcomes data, should be arranged for patients seeking medical care outside the United States.
• The transfer of patient medical records to and from facilities outside the United States should be consistent with Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Action (HIPAA) guidelines.
• Patients choosing to travel outside the United States for medical care should be provided with information about the potential risks of combining surgical procedures with long flights and vacation activities.

1 American Medical Association (AMA). New AMA Guidelines on Medical Tourism . Chicago: AMA; 2008.

Reviewing the Risks

Multiple resources are available for providers and medical tourists assessing medical tourism–related risks (see Table 6-02 ). When reviewing the risks associated with seeking health care abroad, encourage medical tourists to consider several factors besides the procedure; these include the destination, the facility or facilities where the procedure and recovery will take place, and the treating provider.

Make patients aware that medical tourism websites marketing directly to travelers might not include (or make available) comprehensive details on the accreditations, certifications, or qualifications of advertised facilities or providers. Local standards for facility accreditation and provider certification vary, and might not be the same as those in the United States; some facilities and providers abroad might lack accreditation or certification. In some locations, tracking patient outcome data or maintaining formal medical record privacy or security policies are not standard practices.

Medical tourists also should be aware that the drugs and medical products and devices used in other countries might not be subject to the same regulatory scrutiny and oversight as in the United States. In addition, some drugs could be counterfeit or otherwise ineffective because the medication expired, is contaminated, or was improperly stored (for more details, see the previous chapter in this section, . . . perspectives: Avoiding Poorly Regulated Medicines & Medical Products During Travel ).

Table 6-02 Online medical tourism resources

Checking credentials.

ACS recommends that medical tourists use internationally accredited facilities and seek care from providers certified in their specialties through a process equivalent to that established by the member boards of the American Board of Medical Specialties. Advise medical tourists to do as much advance research as possible on the facility and health care provider they are considering using. Also, inform medical tourists that accreditation does not guarantee a good outcome.

Accrediting organizations (e.g., The Joint Commission International, Accreditation Association for Ambulatory Health Care) maintain listings of accredited facilities outside of the United States. Encourage prospective medical tourists to review these sources before committing to having a procedure or receiving medical care abroad.

ACS, ASPS, the American Society for Aesthetic Plastic Surgery, and the International Society of Aesthetic Plastic Surgery all accredit physicians abroad. Medical tourists should check the credentials of health care providers with search tools provided by relevant professional organizations.

Travel Health Insurance

Before travel, medical tourists should check their domestic health insurance plan carefully to understand what services, if any, are covered outside the United States. Additionally, travelers might need to purchase supplemental medical insurance coverage, including medical evacuation insurance; this is particularly important for travelers going to remote destinations or places lacking medical facilities that meet the standards found in high-income countries (see Sec. 6, Ch. 1, Travel Insurance, Travel Health Insurance & Medical Evacuation Insurance ). Medical tourists also should be aware that if complications develop, they might not have the same legal recourse as they would if they received their care in the United States.

Planning for Follow-Up Care

Medical tourists and their domestic physicians should plan for follow-up care. Patients and clinicians should establish what care will be provided abroad, and what the patient will need upon return. Medical tourists should make sure they understand what services are included as part of the cost for their procedures; some overseas facilities and providers charge substantial fees for follow-up care in addition to the base cost. Travelers also should know whether follow-up care is scheduled to occur at the same facility as the procedure.

Health care facilities in the United States should have systems in place to assess patients at admission to determine whether they have received medical care in other countries. Clinicians should obtain an explicit travel history from patients, including any medical care received abroad. Patients who have had an overnight stay in a health care facility outside the United States within 6 months of presentation should be screened for CRE. Admission screening is available free of charge through the Antibiotic Resistance Laboratory Network .

Notify state and local public health as soon as medical tourism–associated infections are identified. Returning patients often present to hospitals close to their home, and communication with public health authorities can help facilitate outbreak recognition. Health care facilities should follow all disease reporting requirements for their jurisdiction. Health care facilities also should report suspected or confirmed cases of unusual antibiotic resistance (e.g., carbapenem-resistant organisms, C. auris ) to public health authorities to facilitate testing and infection-control measures to prevent further transmission. In addition to notifying the state or local health department, contact the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention at [email protected] to report complications related to medical tourism.

The following authors contributed to the previous version of this chapter: Isaac Benowitz, Joanna Gaines

Bibliography

Adabi K, Stern C, Weichman K, Garfein ES, Pothula A, Draper L, et al. Population health implications of medical tourism. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2017;140(1):66–74.

Al-Shamsi, H, Al-Hajelli, M, Alrawi, S. Chasing the cure around the globe: medical tourism for cancer care from developing countries. J Glob Onc. 2018;4:1–3.

Kracalik I, Ham C, Smith AR, Vowles M, Kauber K, Zambrano M, et al. (2019). Notes from the field: Verona integron-encoded metallo-β-lactamase–producing carbapenem-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa infections in U.S. residents associated with invasive medical procedures in Mexico, 2015–2018. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2019;68(20):463–4.

Pavli A, Maltezou HC. Infectious complications related to medical tourism. J Travel Med. 2021;28(1):taaa210.

Pereira RT, Malone CM, Flaherty GT. Aesthetic journeys: a review of cosmetic surgery tourism. J Travel Med. 2018;25(1):tay042.

Robyn MP, Newman AP, Amato M, Walawander M, Kothe C, Nerone JD, et al. Q fever outbreak among travelers to Germany who received live cell therapy & United States and Canada, 2014. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2015;64(38):1071–3.

Salama M, Isachenko V, Isachenko E, Rahimi G, Mallmann P, Westphal LM, et al. Cross border reproductive care (CBRC): a growing global phenomenon with multidimensional implications (a systematic and critical review). J Assist Reprod Genet. 2018;35(7):1277–88.

Schnabel D, Esposito DH, Gaines J, Ridpath A, Barry MA, Feldman KA, et al. Multistate US outbreak of rapidly growing mycobacterial infections associated with medical tourism to the Dominican Republic, 2013–2014. Emerg Infect Dis. 2016;22(8):1340–7.

Stoney RJ, Kozarsky PE, Walker AT, Gaines JL. Population-based surveillance of medical tourism among US residents from 11 states and territories: findings from the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2022;43(7):870–5.

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Medical, Health and Wellness Tourism Research—A Review of the Literature (1970–2020) and Research Agenda

1 Institute for Big Data Research in Tourism, School of Tourism Sciences, Beijing International Studies University, Chaoyang District, Beijing 100024, China; nc.ude.usib@anilgnohz (L.Z.); moc.361@5220niloabgned (B.D.); moc.361@gnay__uyil (L.Y.)

Baolin Deng

Alastair m. morrison.

2 Greenwich Business School, Old Royal Naval College, University of Greenwich, London SE10 9SL, UK; [email protected]

J. Andres Coca-Stefaniak

Associated data.

Data are reported in the article.

Medical, health and wellness tourism and travel represent a dynamic and rapidly growing multi-disciplinary economic activity and field of knowledge. This research responds to earlier calls to integrate research on travel medicine and tourism. It critically reviews the literature published on these topics over a 50-year period (1970 to 2020) using CiteSpace software. Some 802 articles were gathered and analyzed from major databases including the Web of Science and Scopus. Markets (demand and behavior), destinations (development and promotion), and development environments (policies and impacts) emerged as the main three research themes in medical-health-wellness tourism. Medical-health-wellness tourism will integrate with other care sectors and become more embedded in policy-making related to sustainable development, especially with regards to quality of life initiatives. A future research agenda for medical-health-tourism is discussed.

1. Introduction

In 1841, Thomas Cook organized a tour of 570 people to travel from Leicester to Loughborough’s hot springs [ 1 ]. This was the first historically documented tour arranged by a travel agent. However, far earlier, people in Ancient Greece used to travel considerable distances for medical treatment [ 2 ]. Thus, the pursuit of health and medical care has been an essential reason for travel for centuries.

Today, people continue to travel in the pursuit of relaxation, for health reasons, as well as fitness and well-being [ 3 ]. As a response to this growing demand, countries, medical providers, and hospitality and tourism organizations are adapting to offer a broader set of medical, health, and wellness tourism experiences.

The concept of medical-health-wellness tourism has emerged relatively recently as a scholarly field of enquiry in tourism [ 4 , 5 , 6 ]. Although it has been pointed out that travel medicine has existed for 25 years [ 7 ], much of the research related to this has traditionally focused on medical aspects with inadequate consideration given to travel or tourism. Medical-health-wellness tourism can be classified into two primary categories according to a tourist’s choice - obligatory or elective. Obligatory travel occurs when required treatments are unavailable or illegal in the place of origin of the traveler and, as a result of this, it becomes necessary to travel elsewhere to access these services. Elective travel is usually scheduled when the time and costs are most suitable, and the treatments may even be available in the travelers’ home regions [ 8 ]. Other studies have classified these forms of travel and tourism into specific types based on the purpose of the treatment, such as dental tourism [ 9 ], stem cell tourism [ 10 ], spa tourism [ 11 ], springs tourism [ 12 ], IVF treatment [ 13 ], hip and knee replacements, ophthalmologic procedures, cosmetic surgery [ 5 ], cardiac care, and organ transplants [ 14 ].

A consensus is yet to be established on the definitions and contents of medical-health-wellness tourism, and how they interact, including their potential overlaps. Medical travel and tourism, health tourism, wellness tourism, and other similar terms (e.g., birth tourism, cosmetic surgery tourism, dental tourism) tend to be investigated separately in tourism research [ 15 , 16 , 17 , 18 , 19 , 20 ]. Notwithstanding the apparently disconnected nature of published research in this field, medical-health-wellness tourism has become much more popular for a variety of economic, cultural, lifestyle and leisure reasons [ 11 , 21 , 22 ]. Given their rapid development, it seems appropriate to conduct a comprehensive review of the definitions, history, typologies, driving factors, and future directions for these forms of tourism.

This study firstly reviews existing scholarly research through a meta-analysis of medical-health-wellness publications in the context of tourism ( Section 2 ). Then, the method used to analyze the data collected from ISI Web of Science is outlined in Section 3 , followed by a discussion of the research findings ( Section 4 ). Finally, in Section 5 , the conclusions, future research directions, and limitations of the study are presented.

2. Scholarly Reviews and Meta-Analyses of Medical, Health and Wellness Tourism

Previous reviews of the literature and meta-analyses have contributed to clarifying the overall understanding of medical-health-wellness tourism. Existing literature reviews tend to be very broad, spanning health-oriented tourism, medical tourism, sport and fitness tourism, adventure tourism, well-being (Yang sheng in Chinese) tourism, cosmetic surgery tourism, spa tourism, and more.

Medical tourism is an expanding global phenomenon [ 15 , 23 , 24 ]. Driven by high healthcare costs, long patient waiting lists, or a lack of access to new therapies in some countries, many medical tourists (mainly from the United States, Canada, and Western Europe) often seek access to care in Asia, Central and Southern Europe, and Latin America [ 25 , 26 , 27 ]. There are potential biosecurity and nosocomial risks associated with international medical tourism [ 28 ]. One research study collected 133 electronic copies of Australian television programs (66 items) and newspapers (65) about medical care overseas from 2005 to 2011 [ 29 ]. By analyzing these stories, the researchers discovered that Australian media coverage of medical tourism was focused geographically mainly on Asia, featuring cosmetic surgery procedures and therapies generally not available in Australia. However, people tend to engage with medical tourism for a broad range of reasons. In some cases, it is better service quality or lower treatment costs that prevail. In other cases, treatments may not be available locally, or there are long patient waiting lists for non-emergency medical care. Some 100 selected articles were reviewed and categorized into different types of medical tourism depending on the medical treatments they involved, such as dentistry, cosmetic surgery, or fertility work [ 25 ]. An analysis was done on 252 articles on medical tourism posted on the websites of the Korean Tourism Organization and the Korean International Medical Association [ 30 ]. This work enhanced the understanding of medical tourism in Korea as well as identifying the key developmental characteristics. Another research study detailed patient experiences in medical travel, including decision making, motivations, risks, and first-hand accounts [ 31 ]. A literature review was conducted on international travel for cosmetic surgery tourism [ 5 ] and it concluded that the medical travel literature suffered from a lack of focus on the non-surgery-related morbidity of these tourists.

Another set of authors defined health tourism as a branch of tourism in general in which people aim to receive specific treatments or seek an enhancement to their mental, physical, or spiritual well-being [ 32 ]. This systematic literature review assessed the value of destinations’ natural resources and related activities for health tourism. It was argued that most of the research on health tourism has focused on travel from developed to developing countries, and that there is a need to study travel between developed nations [ 33 ].

Wellness tourism is a key area of relevant research as well [ 34 ]. One research study reviewed trends in wellness tourism research and concluded that tourism marketing had so far failed to tap into the deeper meaning of wellness as a concept [ 35 ]. The emergence of health and wellness tourism was explored with their associated social, political, and economic influences [ 13 ]. A review was conducted of the development of wellness tourism using the concept of holistic wellness tourism where it was found that the positive impacts of this type of tourism on social and economic well-being were key to its rising levels of popularity [ 36 ].

All in all, although earlier literature reviews provide invaluable insights into medical-health-wellness tourism, there is a lack of studies that approach this concept in a holistic way. This research seeks to redress this balance by delivering a holistic review of the literature with the following objectives in mind: (1) investigating international journal articles across the typologies of tourism outlined above; (2) identifying influential scholars that have significantly contributed to this field; and (3) summarizing key trends in markets, industry development and promotion, as well as policy-making and impacts. In order to achieve this, a systematic review was conducted to analyze research articles in medical-health-wellness tourism published over a 50-year period from 1970 to 2020.

3.1. Data Collection

A two-step approach was adopted for the development of a database of publications for analysis with CiteSpace. The first step involved a search for relevant, high-quality refereed articles in medical-health-wellness tourism. Several academic journal databases, within tourism and hospitality but also including other disciplines too, were searched for relevant articles in medical-health-wellness tourism using a set of selected keywords. The ISI Web of Science and Scopus were chosen for this purpose as a result of their international recognition and comprehensiveness. Articles included in the list of references of selected articles were also considered valid as part of this search, in line with methodological suggestions for systematic literature searches [ 37 ]. Cited articles were also collected from prominent journals, including the Southern Medical Journal, Journal of Travel Medicine, BMC Public Health, Annals of Tourism Research, Tourism Management, Journal of Travel Research, and Journal of Vacation Marketing. Non-tourism related journals were selected as well including Amfiteatru Economic, Asia Pacific Viewpoint, Public Personal Management, and Revista de Historia Industrial. Adding these references not only delivered a higher number of relevant articles to the database, but it also increased its representativeness.

The second step involved using appropriate, valid and representative search keywords. A total of 986 articles were gathered using the following keywords: medical tourism, health tourism, wellness tourism, and spa tourism. After careful sorting of these publications, using their abstracts and keywords, the number of articles in the database was narrowed down to 802. Of these, 615 were obtained using the keywords medical tourism or wellness tourism, 157 were located by searching for health tourism, and 30 were discovered using spa tourism as the search term. Using the above keywords and restricting the search to 50 years (1970–2020), the first article was found to be published in 1974. As a result, the ensuing analysis of the literature comprises the period from 1974 to 2020.

3.2. Data Analysis

The research tool used for this study was CiteSpace, which is a bibliometric analysis software developed by Professor Chaomei Chen of Drexel University based on the Java framework [ 38 ]. This software assists researchers in the analysis of research trends in a specific field of knowledge and presents scientific knowledge structures through visualization. It has been applied to numerous research fields by scholars from many countries. The data processing for this research used the software V.5.7.R2 (64-bit) version.

The data were classified and analyzed to achieve three specific goals. The first and primary goal of this review work was to analyze the content of the chosen articles, including year of publication, authors, journal impact factors, and the institutional affiliations of scholars in this field. The data were then sorted into categories. The order of authorship was not recorded. For multiple-authored articles, each author was given the same level of credit as sole authors. Second, one of the aims of this research was to discover associations in authorships, regions, and affiliations using statistical analysis. Third, the 802 articles were classified into dominant thematic categories applying the approach proposed by Miles and Huberman [ 39 ]. Three flows of analytical activities were targeted here: data reduction, data display, and verification of data. In the data reduction activity, the word count technique was adopted. Through content analysis, each article’s title and full-text body were recorded for word counting. The most frequently appearing words were extracted to represent the main topics of the collected articles. The dominant thematic categories to be explored further based on the content analysis and word count were: (1) tourism market: tourist demand and behavior; (2) tourism destinations: development and promotion; and (3) tourism development contexts: policies and impacts.

Finally, in order to refine the set of topic sub-categories, abstracts, first paragraphs, and conclusions were read to make the most appropriate assignments. This approach contributed to the more advanced stages of development of the classification of sub-categories and, consequently, the verification of findings.

This section presents the results of the data analysis carried out in this study and provides further insights on the methodology adopted.

4.1. Overview of Articles Published

The 802 articles selected were all published in English and in international peer-reviewed academic journals. Figure 1 displays the timeline distribution of the research on medical-health-wellness tourism and shows a steady growth in publications in this field between 1974 and 2020. This growth in scholarly activity is particularly significant from 2010 onwards. In fact, 74.9% of the articles were published between 2013 and 2020.

Number of articles by publication year.

4.2. Source Journals

Initially, the first stage of this literature search involved identifying academic journals publishing research articles on medical-health-wellness tourism. It was found that 38 articles had been published on this topic in Tourism Management, and 24 articles in Social Science & Medicine. Table 1 shows the top ten tourism journals for publications in this field, with Tourism Management in first place.

Tourism journals publishing articles on medical-health-wellness tourism.

Non-tourism journals in fields such as business, economics, and health, also contributed a significant number of publications in this field, as shown in Table 2 .

Non-tourism journals publishing articles on medical-health-wellness tourism.

4.3. Author Productivity and Authorship Analysis

The second aim was to identify the most prolific scholars in medical-health-wellness tourism research. This was achieved using co-occurrence network analysis of the authors of relevant research articles ( Figure 2 ). Each node in the co-occurrence map shown in Figure 2 represents a given scholar. The larger the node, the more articles the authors published on the topic, with the connections between nodes representing cooperation between authors.

Author article productivity.

Among the 2381 authors identified, 1820 (76.4%) contributed to only one article, whereas the remaining 561 (23.6%) authored two or more articles. The three most prolific authors were Jeremy Snyder, Valorie Crooks, and Rory Johnston.

4.4. Author Regions and Affiliations

Another objective was to illustrate the relationships and networks of authors publishing research on medical-health-wellness tourism. An analysis of countries this research originated from was carried out using the CiteSpace software. Figure 3 shows that scholars publishing in this field were distributed across 61 countries. The largest group of authors originated from the USA ( n =197). The second and third largest groups corresponded to Canada ( n = 88) and the UK ( n = 84), respectively, followed by Australia ( n = 70) and South Korea ( n = 65). As shown in Figure 3 , authors from the USA and Canada have made the most significant contributions to medical-health-wellness tourism based on the number of journal articles published.

Country of origin of authors in medical-health-wellness tourism.

As shown in Figure 4 , a significant number of scholars publishing in this field ( n = 47) were affiliated to Simon Fraser University in Canada. This university was followed by Sejong University in South Korea ( n = 13), and the London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine ( n = 13) in the UK. The top universities in terms of author frequency were based in Canada, USA, Australia, UK, South Korea, and Hong Kong.

Institutions of authors.

4.5. Thematic Analysis of Research

The fourth research objective was to elicit the prevailing research themes using the 802 articles gathered. First, an analysis of keyword frequency was performed to identify the main research interests. High frequency keywords reflect the research ‘hotspots’ in the field. Using CiteSpace’s keyword visualization analysis function, the keyword co-occurrence knowledge map of medical-health-wellness tourism research was drawn to grasp the research ‘hotspots’ ( Figure 5 ).

Frequencies of research keywords.

Then, content analysis performed on the articles gathered for this study identified three main themes, namely: markets (tourist demand and behavior), destinations (development and promotion), and development environments (policies and impacts). An uneven distribution of research themes is highlighted in Figure 6 and Figure 7 .

Timeline of research keyword appearance.

Themes of research articles.

4.6. Markets: Demand and Behavior

Previous studies have shown that the growth of medical-health-wellness tourism in developing countries is largely linked to lower costs, shorter patient waiting lists, and better quality of care [ 40 ]. Similarly, it is suggested that the inequalities and failures in domestic health care systems often lead to people seeking treatment to travel abroad to obtain it [ 41 ]. In general terms, higher costs, long patient waiting lists, the relative affordability of international air travel, favorable exchange rates, and the availability of well-qualified doctors and medical staff in developing countries, all contribute to this situation [ 42 ].

As the demand for these forms of tourism has risen over time, processes and factors influencing decision-making have attracted growing levels of scholarly enquiry. For example, a political responsibility model was used to develop a decision-making process for individual medical tourists [ 43 ]. A sequential decision-making process has been proposed, including considerations of the required treatments, location of treatment, and quality and safety issues attendant to seeking care [ 44 ]. Accordingly, it has been found that health information and the current regulatory environment tend to affect the availability of medical care.

Multiple factors may simultaneously influence decisions related to the destination for care, including culture [ 45 ], social norms [ 46 ], religious factors [ 47 ], and the institutional environment [ 48 ]. It is suggested that socioeconomic conditions shape medical travelers’ decision-making and spending behavior relative to treatment, accommodation, and transport choices as well as the length of stay [ 49 ]. Perceived value is a key predictor of tourist intentions. More specifically, perceived medical quality, service quality, and enjoyment significantly influence the intention to travel abroad for medical-health-wellness purposes [ 50 ]. Further, perceived quality, satisfaction, and trust in the staff and clinics have significant associations affecting intentions to revisit clinics and the destination country [ 51 ]. An empirical study was conducted and found that physical convenience in willingness to stay and time and effort savings in perceived price were key factors affecting the decision-making related to medical hotels [ 52 ]. In addition, the level of perceived advantages, price perceptions, and willingness to stay were found to differ significantly between first-time patients and those with two or more previous visits. In addition, it was found that community communication was a major factor influencing decision-making. For instance, it is argued that virtual community membership has a strong influence on tourist behaviors and the way information is transmitted [ 53 ].

Compared to other tourists, the mental activity and behavior of medical-health-wellness travelers are quite different. Medical tourists are less likely to question their need for surgery and tend to be much readier to accept it [ 54 ]. The emotion and anxiety conditions of medical tourists differ from others’ experiences of travel and tourism, as well as their giving and receiving of transnational health care [ 55 ]. It has been found that language barriers and parenting responsibilities can be significant challenges, while hospital staff and their own families are often major sources of support for medical tourists [ 56 ]. Furthermore, there are significant differences among visitors from different countries in terms of choices, discomfort, preferred product items, and attitudes towards medical tourism [ 57 , 58 ].

4.7. Destinations: Development and Promotion

In response to the demands of medical-health-wellness tourism, destination development and promotion are attracting growing levels of scholarly interest. Scholars from different countries have discussed the market status of Turkey [ 12 , 59 ], the Caribbean [ 60 ] and Barbados [ 61 ], India [ 62 , 63 ], Canada [ 64 ], and Albania [ 65 ]. Table 3 outlines the most frequently researched country destinations in this respect.

Medical-health-wellness destination frequency in keywords.

The advantages and disadvantages of Turkey were examined and indicated needs for improvements [ 59 ]. In another research study, three years (2005, 2007, and 2011) of actual and projected operational cost data were evaluated for three countries: USA, India, and Thailand [ 66 ]. This study discussed some of the inefficiencies in the U.S. healthcare system, drew attention to informing uninsured or underinsured medical tourists of the benefits and risks, and determined the managerial and cost implications of various surgical procedures in the global healthcare system.

As regards medical-health-wellness tourism destination development, scholars have explored research from various perspectives. Conceptual frameworks have been developed to include tourism destinations and services in the context of medical and health tourism [ 59 , 67 ]. Advice has been provided from the perspective of public and private hospital doctors [ 68 ]. The principles of designing hospital hotels have been proposed, including proper planning, low prices of tourism services, medical education, creating websites on medical tourism, and health tourism policy councils [ 69 ]. Above all, scholars have posited that meeting or exceeding tourist expectations and requirements should remain the top priorities as regards the effective development of medical tourism destinations [ 69 , 70 ].

Once a medical-health-wellness tourism destination is developed successfully, marketing and promotion are essential to attract tourists. As part of this process, informing potential patients about procedural options, treatment facilities, tourism opportunities, and travel arrangements are the keys to success [ 71 ]. Most tourists rely on the Internet to gather information about destinations, often using mobile devices or personal computers [ 72 ], with websites and social media playing a key role in this respect, and specifically with regards to information about destinations’ medical facilities, staff expertise, services, treatments, equipment, and successful cases [ 73 ]. For example, apps for medical travel are available to attract tourists and promote medical tourism in Taiwan [ 74 ].

Numerous businesses promote medical-health-wellness travel, including medical travel companies, health insurance companies, travel agencies, medical clinics, and hospitals [ 75 ]. Among them, medical travel facilitators play a significant role as engagement moderators between prospective patients in one country and medical facilities elsewhere around the world [ 76 ]. The services offered on medical tourism facilitator websites vary considerably from one country to another [ 77 ]. Although medical travel facilitators operate on a variety of different scales and market their services differently, they all emphasize the consumer experience through advertising quality assurance and logistical support [ 78 ].

Scholarly research has also considered the factors that need to be taken into consideration in medical-health-wellness tourism promotion. This research has suggested that destinations should identify the specifics in their health tourism resources, attractions, and products, seek collaboration with others, and build a common regional brand [ 79 ]. Regional differences should be considered in the process of marketing as medical-health-wellness tourism is a global industry [ 77 ]. International advertisers need to understand the important, contemporary, and cultural characteristics of target customers before promotion [ 80 ]. Similarly, destinations need to portray safe and advanced treatment facilities to dispel potential patient worries and suspicions. Messages related solely to low cost may detract from and even undermine messages about quality [ 71 ]. However, while benefits are highly emphasized online, websites may fail to report any procedural, postoperative, or legal concerns and risks associated with medical tourism [ 81 ].

4.8. Development Environments: Policies and Impacts

The rise of medical-health-wellness tourism emphasizes the privatization of healthcare, an increasing dependence on technology, and the accelerating globalization of healthcare and tourism [ 82 ]. There are challenges and opportunities in the development of these tourism forms. For instance, it has been suggested that medical tourism distorts national health care systems, and raises critical national economic, ethical, and social questions [ 83 ]. Along with the development of medical-health-wellness tourism, social-cultural contradictions [ 84 ] and economic inequities are widening in terms of access, cost, and quality of healthcare [ 85 ]. It is argued that this tourism leads destinations to emphasize tertiary care for foreigners at the expense of basic healthcare for their citizens [ 86 ]. Moreover, in some instances, this phenomenon can exacerbate the medical brain drain from the public sector to the private sector [ 43 , 87 , 88 ], leading to rising private health care and health insurance costs [ 88 ].

While medical-health-wellness tourism is a potential source of revenue, it also brings a certain level of risk to destinations and tourists [ 89 ]. The spread of this type of tourism has been posited as a contributing factor to the spread of infectious diseases and public health crises [ 90 , 91 ]. Medical tourists are at risk of hospital-associated and procedure-related infections as well as diseases endemic to the countries where the service is provided [ 92 ]. Similarly, the safety of some treatments offered has also been the subject of growing levels of scrutiny. Contemporary scholarship examining clinical outcomes in medical travel for cosmetic surgery has identified cases in which patients traveled abroad for medical procedures and subsequently returned home with infections and other surgical complications [ 93 ]. Stem cell tourism has been criticized on the grounds of consumer fraud, blatant lack of scientific justification, and patient safety [ 94 , 95 ]. During the process of medical tourism, inadequate communication, and information asymmetry in cross-cultural communication may bring medical risks [ 96 ].

Medical-health-wellness tourism has emerged as a global healthcare phenomenon. Policy guidance is vital for the development of this sector in the future [ 97 ]. There are policy implications for the planning and development of medical-health-wellness tourism destinations [ 98 ]. Generally, it has been found that the medical-health-wellness tourism sector tends to perform better in countries with a clear policy framework for this activity [ 99 ]. Similarly, scholars have argued the need for a clearer policy framework regulating tourism agencies and the information and services they provide [ 100 ]. The upsurge of these tourism forms presents new opportunities and challenges for policy makers in the health sector. It has been argued that existing policy processes are mainly based on entrenched ideological positions and more attention should be paid to robust evidence of impact [ 101 ]. The UK developed policies focused on ’patient choice’ that allow people who are able and willing to choose to travel further for healthcare [ 102 ]. However, more robust policy making is still required to strengthen national health services and facilitate medical-health-wellness tourism sector development in destinations [ 103 , 104 ].

5. Discussion and Conclusions

5.1. generation discussion.

This study is based on a literature review of 802 articles on medical-health-wellness tourism from 1970 to 2020. Jeremy Snyder was found to be the most prolific author in this field with 45 articles. It has been found that the literature on this topic can be summarized into three themes: markets (tourist demand and behavior), destinations (development and promotion), and development environments (policies and impacts). The scholarly research in this growing field has undergone a shift in emphasis from tourist demand and behavior to the promotion and development of destinations, and, more recently, to policies and impacts.

To attract more tourists, destinations should explore their potential for medical-health-wellness tourism. Accessibility, procedural options, treatment facilities, travel arrangements, safety guarantees, and government policies remain influential factors. In the development and promotion of this form of tourism, childhood vaccinations, oral health, legal frameworks, evaluation systems, entrance systems, and macro-policy continue to be areas of concern and where further research is required. Above all, meeting or exceeding tourist expectations and requirements is the most important consideration to promote medical-health-wellness tourism. Similarly, appropriate policy guidelines and frameworks are necessary to support this form of tourism. Importantly, medical-health-wellness tourism may result in negative impacts on the healthcare service provision for local residents in poorer countries, with tourists from richer countries benefiting to the detriment of local communities. However, if managed successfully, this form of tourism can also be a force for good in terms of fostering the economic development of countries delivering these services.

The results indicated that the research literature is spread across a range of different disciplines and there is not one single venue for publishing in this field. A better integration of the research and improved understanding of the overlaps among medical, health, and wellness tourism is required.

5.2. Future Research Trends

5.2.1. industrial perspective.

Medical-health-wellness tourism will, over time, integrate fully with other healthcare and wellness services. Similarly, medical challenges such as disease prevention and traditional medicine remain essential directions for the future of health tourism. This form of tourism will also integrate further with industries such as wellness culinary tourism, mindfulness tourism, active tourism (including adventure tourism), and even cosmetic surgery tourism, leading to a vast array of potential research avenues linked to health tourism destinations. These futures will greatly promote the physical and mental health of wellness tourists. This is another emerging direction for future medical-health-wellness tourism research.

5.2.2. Destination Development Perspectives

Medical-health-wellness tourism will become more significant forms of tourism and impact the development of different nations and areas. For example, this tourism will integrate with Chinese traditional culture. Traditional treatments and remedies will become more of an advantage and should be a topic for future medical-health-wellness tourism research, as well as in other countries with unique health cultures, treatments, and procedures.

Thailand, Malaysia, and other Southeast Asian countries are favored by tourists from developed countries due to lower costs. In the future, these areas need to focus more on tourism product design, health tourism marketing, community participation, and cross-cultural communication. Developed countries such as the USA, Japan, and South Korea, will use advanced technology and medical equipment to take the path to high-end, high value-added tourism development. This will lead to some new research opportunities.

5.2.3. Tourist Perspectives

Compared with other types of tourists, the needs of medical-health-wellness tourists will receive more attention. Based on previous research, the psychology and perceived value of these tourists are the focus of considerable research. In the future, more emphasis will be paid to people and especially to their psychological and physiological needs. Research on demand will become a more popular topic of this tourism research. Second, the current research on medical-health-wellness tourists is concentrated on the study of tourists in the USA and Canada. Future research should be more dispersed and diversified. Tourists from emerging countries such as Eastern Europe, Asia, the Middle East, and Africa will receive more attention.

5.3. Limitations

This study, inevitably, has a number of limitations, including the relatively modest amount of articles collected. Only articles written in English were considered. The sample number is rather small to represent the general research trends in medical-health-wellness tourism from 1970 to 2020. Therefore, it is desirable to increase the number of publications and expand the time and language coverage of the research articles to gain more insights.

Although the research scope of medical-health-wellness tourism is vast, it lacks in-depth exploration. Current research is fragmented, lacks continuity and comprehensiveness, and therefore cannot be considered systematic. Also, the legal aspects of the development of this tourism, environmental capacity of medical-health tourism, wellness tourism management, and mechanisms of profit distribution for medical-health-wellness tourism are less frequently mentioned in research articles. Innovation in this field and international cooperation, and talent cultivation are also not sufficiently addressed. The methods used in medical-health-wellness tourism research are often simple. Scholars still use traditional descriptive statistics and related analysis methods. The theoretical foundation of medical-health-wellness tourism is still relatively weak. We are in the primary stage of this tourism research and in the development of related tourism products. People all over the world are eager for healthy lives. Medical-health-wellness tourism is likely to play a more important future role in travel medicine and tourism research. Beyond what has been done already, follow-up research should be focused on interdisciplinarity and based on the integration of industries. More theoretical research is necessary to support the future growth of medical-health-wellness tourism.

Author Contributions

Formal analysis, L.Z.; Funding acquisition, L.Z.; Investigation, L.Z.; Supervision, B.D.; Data collection and analysis, B.D.; Writing-original draft, A.M.M. and J.A.C.-S.; Writing—original draft, A.M.M.; Writing—review & editing, A.M.M., J.A.C.-S. and L.Y.; Data collection and analysis. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

National Natural Science Foundation of China, Grant no: 71673015); Ethnic research project of the National Committee of the people’s Republic of China. NO: 2020-GMD-089; Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities of Beijing Foreign Studies University, 2021JS001.

Institutional Review Board Statement

No human subjects were involved in this research and no institutional review was required.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable as there were no human subjects.

Data Availability Statement

Conflicts of interest.

The authors have no conflict of interest.

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

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Medical tourism and medical tourists: providing a sustainable course to integrating health treatments with tourism

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Glenn McCartney, Chu Feng Wang, Medical tourism and medical tourists: providing a sustainable course to integrating health treatments with tourism, Journal of Travel Medicine , 2024;, taae034, https://doi.org/10.1093/jtm/taae034

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Medical tourism (MT) is an expanding multidisciplinary economic activity that combines the healthcare and tourist industries, with patients increasingly travelling worldwide for medical treatments. MT provides economic benefits to destinations while raising ethical, quality, informed and risk concerns for medical tourists. Greater cross-disciplinary studies and collaboration across sectors are advocated.

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Medical Tourism: What Is Health Tourism & Where Is It Popular?

William Cooper

Marketing Director

Medical tourism – also called health tourism – is a huge and booming industry spanning the entire globe. In 2020, the value of the global health tourism sector was around US$54 billion , but by 2027 it is expected to almost quadruple in size to US$207 billion .

But what should you expect if you are thinking of becoming a medical tourist yourself? Where are the best places for medical tourism in the world right now? In this article, we’ll go through everything you need to know about medical tourism.

In this article

• What is medical tourism?

What are the best countries for medical tourism?

What’s the difference between medical tourism and travelling for treatment.

What is medical tourism and what are the best countries for medical tourism?

Medical tourism is as old as time itself. People in ancient societies were known to travel great distances to seek the expertise of physicians and spiritual healers in other parts of the world. In early modern society, patients would make long journeys to spa towns, where they could receive medical treatments in hospitals and recover in peace.

Today, here are many reasons someone might become a medical tourist, from the cost and quality of treatment , to gaining access to treatments that are not widely available in your home country. Medical tourism can combine medical procedures with a holiday, and many are now also choosing to spend their time working abroad as digital nomads .

So, what is medical tourism?

Medical tourism , otherwise known as health tourism , is when people travel for medical treatment to another country. It’s a trend that has been growing rapidly since the COVID-19 pandemic, with the global medical tourism market projected to grow at a rate of 15–25% year-on-year over the next decade.

Medical tourism is often associated with people from lesser-developed countries with poorer health systems travelling to more advanced countries to receive high-quality medical care. Patients may also choose to travel to countries that specialise in the type of treatment they need.

That said, with the cost of healthcare increasing exponentially in recent years, medical tourism has started to become more common for people in developed countries, who travel to less-developed countries to receive low-cost medical treatments.

Indeed, patients from countries that don’t have a universal health system can often save thousands of dollars on medical treatments by travelling abroad, making medical tourism an attractive option for people who are uninsured or underinsured , as well as for those who have reached their insurance coverage limit in their home country.

Is healthcare ever really ‘free’?

We look at which countries provide healthcare to all citizens.

Many medical tourists now also go in search of elective and cosmetic treatments such as plastic surgery , hair transplants , breast reductions or cosmetic dental procedures . Fertility treatment is also becoming a common reason for people to become medical tourists.

One of the biggest markets for medical tourism is the United States. Due to the high cost of medical treatments in the US, more than 2 million Americans travel abroad for medical tourism every year (accounting for roughly 9% of all medical tourists worldwide ). The cost savings speak for themselves – the OECD points out that a heart valve treatment costing US$150,000 in America may only cost US$9,250 in Poland.

In 2019, Patients Without Borders estimated there to have been around 21–26 million cross-border patients worldwide, each spending an average of US$3,500 per visit.

There is now a large and ever-growing number of medical tourism companies around the world. Many provide initial consultations in the patient’s home country before flying them out to a foreign country for treatment.

The patient can often expect to stay in luxurious accommodation while they are undergoing treatment, and some companies will also provide medical professionals from the patient’s country of origin. The price of the patient’s flights and hotel are often included in the price, and the patient may even have an opportunity to enjoy a short holiday while receiving their care.

Healthcare differs abroad and prices vary significantly

Do you know how much medical treatment costs abroad.

Choosing the right destination for a medical tourism trip will depend on several factors. These include:

Quality of care

According to McKinsey , 40% of people who travel for medical tourism go in search of higher quality treatment than they can find at home . For this reason, medical tourists often look for countries with highly-developed healthcare systems, access to the best quality doctors and medical equipment, and easy access to treatment (for instance, short waiting lists). Different countries may specialise in certain types of treatment, making it hard to say which countries are the definitive ‘best’ for all types of medical tourists.

Naturally, medical tourists tend to choose countries where healthcare is cheaper . Many medical tourists specifically seek private healthcare in foreign countries to guarantee their quality of care, but this will usually incur a cost . Even so, with access to shorter waiting times and higher-quality treatment, many medical tourists consider these costs to be worthwhile, especially when compared to the cost of treatment in their own country.

Tourism opportunities

As a medical tourist, you may end up spending several weeks or even months in a foreign country while you undergo treatment and recovery. For this reason, medical tourists tend to opt for countries that are safe , pleasant and perhaps even offer opportunities for them to work abroad . Medical tourists will often combine their medical treatment with a holiday , leading many to choose tourism hotspots as their medical tourism destinations.

With that said, according to data from the International Medical Travel Journal , these countries rank as the top 10 medical tourism destinations in the world:

Medical tourists per year (2019)

Medical care can vary widely between countries

We look at the countries with the best healthcare in the world.

Other countries that ranked highly for medical tourism in 2019 included Russia (200,000 visitors), USA (200,000), Belarus (150,000), Spain (140,000), Poland (100,000) and Germany (100,000).

However, it is important to remember that the most popular countries are not necessarily the best . Different countries offer different standards of healthcare, and may specialise in different types of treatment.

The best places for medical tourism are those that can offer the best treatment for you at the best price .

In a 2011 report on medical tourism, the OECD gave the following figures as an illustration of the price medical tourists could expect to pay for treatment in foreign countries. Notice how certain treatments are especially cheap in some countries.

Cost per treatment (USD$)

Heart valve replacement

Hip replacement

Gastric bypass

Breast augmentation

Breast reduction

Nose job (rhinoplasty)

Dental implants

Just because you are travelling to another country or region for medical or wellness reasons doesn’t necessarily mean you are taking part in medical tourism .

Medical tourism is defined as travelling to another country specifically for cheaper, more accessible treatment . The majority of medical tourists travel for elective treatments (for instance, plastic surgery or dental work) that are available in their home country, albeit at a higher cost. Some medical tourists also travel to receive higher-quality treatment than they would find in their own country.

‘ Travelling for treatment ’ is different to medical tourism in the sense that those travelling for treatment are more likely to be referred by doctors in their home country.

For instance, as an expat you may at some point require specialist treatment that is not available in your home country. In these instances, you may be referred by your doctor to a hospital in a different city or region, a different country, or perhaps your home country, in order to undergo this treatment.

This is a common practice, even in highly-developed countries. It is especially common if you are living in a remote area with limited access to hospitals, a small country with limited health facilities such as Andorra, or if you are living in a poorer or less-developed country where access to healthcare is limited .

While it is becoming hard to separate the statistics for the number of people who travel for essential treatment vs. medical tourists , there are several key differences between travelling for treatment and medical tourism :

Medical tourism

Travelling for health

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How can international health insurance help?

If you are covered by international health insurance , you may be entitled to receive treatment at private medical facilities . This is to ensure you receive the best-quality treatment and care, and so that you are more likely to find medical professionals who speak your native language .

These medical facilities may not always be in the country or region you are living in. In these cases, your insurer may arrange a ‘ medical evacuation ’ or Medevac for emergency life or limb-threatening medical treatment when it is not available locally.

As an expat or digital nomad with international health insurance, you may also find that your policy covers you not just in one country, but within a much wider ‘ coverage zone . This is to ensure you can receive high-quality medical treatment wherever you move in the world.

Some international health insurance policies offer you worldwide coverage, while others cover specific continents or regions. (Expats in the United States may need special USA-only policies, as the healthcare system is very different there.)

Unsure which insurance product you need?

We compare domestic, international and travel insurance.

What you should know about travelling abroad for medical care

Undergoing medical treatment is stressful at the best of times . For patients who need to travel to another country for treatment, the stress is likely to be significantly greater.

That’s why it’s important to remember these things when travelling abroad for medical care, whether you are travelling for essential care or for medical tourism:

Bring a spouse or relative

Travelling for any medical procedure can be extremely nerve-wracking , so you will want to have someone you love nearby. Many medical tourism operators are accommodating of guests, and if you are covered by international health insurance your insurance provider will usually cover at least one person to travel with you.

This person can support you while you are recovering , both emotionally and when it comes to running errands – this will be extra-essential when you are recovering in a foreign country.

Choose a reputable operator

If you are travelling abroad for medical tourism, it’s essential to choose a provider with a strong reputation .

These operators are more likely to have access to the best hospitals and medical professionals, and a good track record with plenty of patient testimonials under their belts. They should also be able to find doctors who speak your native language. And they will be responsible for keeping you safe while you are abroad, so it’s important to know their patient duty of care .

If you are covered by international health insurance, you won’t need to worry – your provider will be able to connect you with a medical facility within their own network . At William Russell, we have 40,000 such facilities in our own global network who have helped people get the best possible experience when seeking medical assistance abroad.

Always consult your insurance provider

If you are an expat or digital nomad with international health insurance and considering getting surgery abroad as a medical tourist, it’s important to speak to your insurer.

Undergoing elective treatment in a foreign country, especially if it is one outside your coverage zone, may jeopardise your insurance policy. If something goes wrong while you are abroad – either as a result of your treatment or in any other context – you may not be able to make a claim through your insurance provider. If you develop complications while in your coverage zone as a result of your treatment abroad, these may also not be covered.

The silver lining is that your insurance provider may be able to help you seek and fund the cost of treatment through your existing policy. That’s why it’s always best to consult your insurer first.

Where are the best places in the world to live and work?

We look at the 5 best countries for expats and digital nomads, coverage that travels with you.

For expats and digital nomads living abroad, international health insurance can give you total peace of mind when it comes to seeking medical care.

With international health insurance you’ll benefit from our global network of 40,000 private medical facilities, with doctors who speak your language and medical evacuation cover included in case you need life or limb-threatening emergency treatment that is not available locally.

Speak to William Russell today to learn more about how international health insurance could help to access high-quality medical treatment worldwide.

Looking for international health insurance?

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Medical tourism is drawing patients, even in a pandemic.

By Ceylan Yeginsu

The coronavirus pandemic has pushed millions of Americans into poverty and stripped more than 5.4 million of them of their health insurance, according to a study by Families USA, a nonpartisan consumer advocacy group.

Many people have put off medical procedures, and seen their health deteriorate significantly. The fear of large medical bills has outweighed fear of contagion for some, giving rise to an increased number of patients seeking medical treatment in a foreign country.

“We are seeing a pent-up demand for medical tourism during the pandemic, particularly in the U.S. where a fast-growing number of Americans are traveling across the land border with Mexico for health purposes,” said David G. Vequist IV, the founder of the Center for Medical Tourism Research and a professor at the University of the Incarnate Word in San Antonio.

Even before the pandemic, millions of Americans traveled to other countries for savings of 40 to 80 percent on medical treatments, according to the global medical tourism guide Patients Beyond Borders . Mexico and Costa Rica have become the most popular destinations for dental care, cosmetic surgery and prescription medicines, while Thailand, India and South Korea draw patients for more complex procedures involving orthopedics, cardiovascular issues, cancer and fertility treatment.

In 2019, 1.1 percent of Americans traveling internationally did so for health treatments, according to the National Travel and Tourism Office , although that figure accounts only for those who went by air.

Medical tourism has been decimated by coronavirus restrictions, but, even so, the twin crises of the economy and the enormous strain that Covid-19 has placed on the already faulty American health care system are pushing many patients to travel. Demand for nonessential surgeries has also been building up after more than 177,000 scheduled surgeries were postponed in the United States between March and June last year, according to the Center for Medical Tourism Research.

Ceylan Yeginsu is a London-based reporter. She joined The Times in 2013, and was previously a correspondent in Turkey covering politics, the migrant crisis, the Kurdish conflict, and the rise of Islamic State extremism in Syria and the region. More about Ceylan Yeginsu

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Does Travel Count as Therapy? Why Tourism is Great for Your Mental Health

 Krystal Kavita Jagoo is a social worker, committed to anti-oppressive practice, who has worked for three academic institutions across Canada. Her essay, “Inclusive Reproductive Justice,” was in the Reproductive Justice Briefing Book.

Verywell / Madelyn Goodnight

Key Takeaways

• Researchers reviewed the potential benefits of tourism for individuals with dementia.
• Travel may help to improve well-being for those struggling with mental distress.
• Exploring a new environment through travel may assist individuals with distress, so these insights should inform future policy.

We know the benefits of art therapy and music therapy , but a new study shows how travel therapy may be another type of intervention that can be added to the list.

A recently published journal article in Tourism Management found that the experience of going on a vacation can be beneficial for people who navigate dementia. Researchers note how tourism experiences may provide positive impacts as a dementia intervention.

Not only is travel therapy beneficial for those with dementia, but it can help those who struggle with other mental health issues as well.

Given how travel was disrupted by the pandemic , it may be worthwhile to consider how it may impact individuals with mental health struggles.

Understanding the Research

Researchers explored how travel engages feeling, thinking, doing, and sensory experiences to develop a framework based on existing positive psychology interventions for dealing with dementia.

By drawing on the benefits of positive psychology , some tourism interventions include experiencing a theme park, beach-related travel, and family trips. In this way, travel may benefit both those who deal with dementia, as well as other mental health challenges.

This research is one of the first to explore connections between tourism experiences and mental health interventions through the lens of positive psychology, with such benefits as savoring the moment, feeling gratitude , and thinking about positive experiences.

Travel Can Restructure Your Mind

Psychotherapist with  Mindpath Health ,  Taish Malone, LPC, PhD,  says, "This study supports that restructuring your mind can be more helpful when your stimuli, environment, people, duties, and so forth change."

Sensory and cognitive stimulation is important for mental health, as well as exercise . When people go on vacation, they find themselves in a new environment and different culture, and are physically moving in ways they may not at home.

Despite potential benefits, Malone recommends, "Travelers should be cognizant that while travel will offer some reprieve, the assumption that other countries aren’t faced with similar issues may be too much of a blindly optimistic view that could lead to further disappointment."

"Political unrest and social disruptions are not lost in other parts of the world. Travelers should do their research to make sure to choose places and/or locations to best meet their overall needs," she says.

While there is research on the psychology of travel, Malone notes that most discuss the purpose of travel as being a great determiner of the experience.

"Motivators range from those seeking mental reprieve to exposure and connection of either their own or another culture," she says.

"The intentions behind a person’s travel plans will determine the expectations they may have of the trip and if it can be perceived as beneficial. No matter the reason behind traveling, the mindset should always embrace the best the experience has to offer," she explains.

Mental distress may contribute to distortions that impact life experiences, according to Malone.

"This is not generally conducive to enjoying some experiences, since it limits functionality and significantly interferes with their outlook and relationship with themselves, other people, their work, and even their embrace of enjoyment in life," she says. 

Taish Malone, LPC, PhD

Travelers should be cognizant that while travel will offer some reprieve, the assumption that other countries aren’t faced with similar issues may be too much of a blindly optimistic view that could lead to further disappointment.

In her therapy practice, Malone has often heard feedback from clients that support the idea that expectations and outlook greatly determine a person’s experiences regardless of where you are or what you do.

Malone highlights, "Some may have a distorted view that they will not have to continue to work on their growth strategies just because the stressors they once had were specific to their at-home experiences. However, they should focus on using the travel experience as a reset to choose better practices of experiencing life altogether."

"Many clients have benefited from seeing the wonder of life and what is important without the 'noise' of their daily grind, and returned with a new perspective. Yet, I have had others who were so intent on their own rigid ideals that they returned even more cynical," she says.

While a change of scenery and the absence of deadlines may help, Malone notes that admiring the beauty in life is possible no matter where you are.

Finding a Sense of Balance

Neuroscientist and clinical social worker  Renetta Weaver, LCSW-C , says, "The research suggests that traveling to new environments offers a social and emotional experience that boosts happiness hormones and leads to new learning in ways that differ from the habitual structure of our everyday environment."

Although more research is needed in the area of travel and enhanced functioning in people with mental distress, Weaver notes that there is already proof that creative activity and experiences help to stimulate the brain.

Weaver recommends, "Think about how important it is for you to unwind after work, or how many of us look forward to the weekend. We all need ways of mentally and physically escaping. Our brain is always seeking a way to help us blow off steam and re-establish a feeling of balance."

Getting out of the country for a period of travel may provide that mental or emotional escape, according to Weaver.

"Looking out into that vast ocean can feel like a million miles away from the problems at home," she says.

"Traveling out of the country can also help us shift our perspective and remind us that our problems are small compared to the largeness of the world; the world extends beyond our corner."

Traveling out of the country can be a reminder that one does not have it as bad as one thought, as Weaver notes that happiness is not determined by material possessions or wealth. 

Renetta Weaver, LCSW-C

The research suggests that traveling to new environments offers a social and emotional experience that boosts happiness hormones and leads to new learning in ways that differ from the habitual structure of our everyday environment.

While travel may be treated as a luxury experience, Weaver notes that research shows that traveling adds a flavorful ingredient in the recipe for optimal brain functioning.

"In the absence of stimulating activities and experiences, our brain becomes bored and falls asleep," she says.

"For people who are oppressed due to their financial status, sexual status, or citizenship status, it’s safe to assume that there are perceived threats that cause psychological limitations to traveling."

For those who are trans, Weaver notes they may feel unsafe traveling due to transphobia.

"For those who don’t have citizenship, they might fear not being allowed back into the country once they leave," she says.

The mind does not know the difference between imagining something and actually doing it, so Weaver encourages a rich use of the imagination if physically traveling is not an option.

"That’s what we do when we meditate , and the scenery is a beach or a mountain," she says.

Weaver explains, "Neuroscience teaches us about the plasticity of the brain and the possibility of recovering the parts of our brain that we thought we lost. Traveling can lead to the release of dopamine , serotonin , and oxytocin , which cause our bodies to heal and function well." 

"Travel is more than just a luxury, it's a necessity. It may be the only time we stop and smell the roses. Travel can help us to remember what we are living for instead of forgetting what we have because we're busy in constant pursuit of what we don't have," she concludes.

What This Means For You

Travel may offer unique benefits as a mental health intervention. If you or someone you love have not explored tourism as an opportunity to improve quality of life in terms of mental health, it may be worth considering.

Wen J, Zheng D, Hou H, et al. Tourism as a dementia treatment based on positive psychology .  Tour Manag . 2022;92:104556. doi:10.1016/j.tourman.2022.104556

By Krystal Jagoo  Krystal Kavita Jagoo is a social worker, committed to anti-oppressive practice.

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US Visitor Visa Guide: Business, Pleasure, Tourist, Medical Treatment

Generally, a citizen of a foreign country who wishes to enter the United States must first obtain a visa, either a nonimmigrant visa for a temporary stay, or an immigrant visa for permanent residence. Visitor visas are nonimmigrant visas for persons who want to enter the United States temporarily for business (visa category B-1), for tourism (visa category B-2), or for a combination of both purposes (B-1/B-2).

Here are some examples of activities permitted with a visitor visa:

Business (B-1):

• Consult with business associates
• Attend a scientific, educational, professional, or business convention or conference
• Settle an estate
• Negotiate a contract

Business (B-2):

• Vacation (holiday)
• Visit with friends or relatives
• Medical treatment
• Participation in social events hosted by fraternal, social, or service organizations
• Participation by amateurs in musical, sports, or similar events or contests, if not being paid for participating
• Enrollment in a short recreational course of study, not for credit toward a degree (for example, a two-day cooking class while on vacation)

Travel Purposes Not Allowed on Visitor Visas:

• Paid performances, or any professional performance before a paying audience
• Arrival as a crewmember on a ship or aircraft
• Work as foreign press, in radio, film, print journalism, or other information media
• Permanent residence in the United States

How to Apply

There are several steps to apply for a visa. The order of these steps and how you complete them may vary by U.S. Embassy or Consulate. Please consult the instructions on the  U.S. Embassy or Consulate website .

Complete the Online Visa Application

• Online Nonimmigrant Visa Application,   Form DS-160   –   Learn more   about completing the   DS-160 . You must: 1) complete the online visa application and 2) print the application form confirmation page to bring to your interview.
• Photo   – You will upload your photo while completing the online Form DS-160. Your photo must be in the format explained in the   Photograph Requirements .

Schedule an Interview

Interviews are generally required for visa applicants with certain limited exceptions below. Consular officers may require an interview of any visa applicant.

You should schedule an appointment for your visa interview at the  U.S. Embassy or Consulate  in the country where you live. You may schedule your interview at another U.S. Embassy or Consulate, but be aware that it may be more difficult to qualify for a visa outside of the country where you live. 

Wait times for interview appointments vary by location, season, and visa category, so you should apply for your visa early. Review the interview wait time for the location where you will apply: 

https://travel.state.gov/content/travel/en/us-visas/visa-information-resources/wait-times.html

Prepare for Your Interview

• Fees - Pay the non-refundable visa application fee , if you are required to pay it before your interview. If your visa is approved, you may also need to pay a visa issuance fee, if applicable to your nationality. Fee information is provided here:  https://travel.state.gov/content/travel/en/us-visas/visa-information-resources/fees/fees-visa-services.html
• Review the instructions available on the website of the  U.S. Embassy or Consulate  where you will apply to learn more about fee payment.

Gather Required Documentation

Gather and prepare the following required documents before your visa interview:

• Passport   valid for travel to the United States – Your passport must be valid for at least six months beyond your period of stay in the United States (unless exempt by   country-specific agreements ). Each individual who needs a visa must submit a separate application, including any family members listed in your passport.
• Nonimmigrant Visa Application,   Form DS-160   confirmation page.
• Application fee payment receipt,   if you are required to pay before your interview.
• Photo   – You will upload your photo while completing the online Form DS-160. If the   photo upload fails,   you must bring one printed photo in the format explained in the   Photograph Requirements .

Additional Documentation May Be Required

Review the instructions for how to apply for a visa on the website of the   U.S. Embassy or Consulate   where you will apply. Additional documents may be requested to establish if you are qualified. For example, additional requested documents may include evidence of:

• The purpose of your trip,
• Your intent to depart the United States after your trip, and/or
• Your ability to pay all costs of the trip.   

Evidence of your employment and/or your family ties may be sufficient to show the purpose of your trip and your intent to return to your home country. If you cannot cover all the costs for your trip, you may show evidence that another person will cover some or all costs for your trip.

Note:  Visa applicants must qualify on the basis of the applicant's residence and ties abroad, rather than assurances from U.S. family and friends. A letter of invitation or Affidavit of Support is not needed to apply for a visitor visa. If you choose to bring a letter of invitation or Affidavit of Support to your interview, please remember it is not one of the factors used in determining whether to issue or deny the visa.

Attend Your Visa Interview

A consular officer will interview you to determine whether you are qualified to receive a visitor visa. You must establish that you meet the requirements under U.S. law to receive a visa.   Ink-free, digital fingerprint scans are taken as part of the application process. They are usually taken during your interview, but this varies based on location.

After your visa interview, the consular officer may determine that your application requires further  administrative processing .  The consular officer will inform you if this required.

After the visa is approved, you may need to pay a visa issuance fee (if applicable to your nationality), and make arrangements for the return of the passport and visa to you.  Review the  visa processing times  to learn more.

Entering the United States

A visa allows a foreign citizen to travel to a U.S. port-of-entry (generally an airport) and request permission to enter the United States. A visa does not guarantee entry into the United States. The Department of Homeland Security (DHS), U.S. Customs and Border Protection (CBP) officials at the port-of-entry have authority to permit or deny admission to the United States. If you are allowed to enter the United States, the CBP official will provide an admission stamp or a paper Form I-94, Arrival/Departure Record. Learn more about admissions and entry requirements, restrictions about bringing food, agricultural products, and other restricted/prohibited goods, and more by reviewing the   CBP website .

Extending Your Stay

See  Extend Your Stay  on the U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services (USCIS) website to learn about requesting to extend your stay beyond the date indicated on your admission stamp or paper Form I-94. 

Failure to depart the United States on time will result in being  out of status . Under U.S. law, visas of individuals who are out of status are automatically voided ( Section 222(g) of the Immigration and Nationality Act ).  Any multiple entry visa that was voided due to being out of status will not be valid for future entries into the United States. 

Failure to depart the United States on time may also result in you being ineligible for visas in the future. Review  Visa Denials  and  Ineligibilities and Waivers: Laws  to learn more.

Change of Status

If your plans change while in the United States (for example, you marry a U.S. citizen or receive an offer of employment), you may be able to request a change in your nonimmigrant status to another category through U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services (USCIS). See  Change My Nonimmigrant Status  on the USCIS website to learn more.

While you are in the United States, receiving a change of status from USCIS does not require you to apply for a new visa.  However, once you depart the United States you must apply for a new visa at a U.S. Embassy or Consulate in the appropriate category for your travel.

Additional Information

• An individual on a visitor visa (B1/B2) is not permitted to accept employment or work in the United States.
• There is no guarantee you will be issued a visa. Do not make final travel plans or buy tickets until you have a visa.
• A valid U.S. visa in an expired passport is still valid. Unless canceled or revoked, a visa is valid until its expiration date. If you have a valid visa in your expired passport, do not remove it from your expired passport. You may use your valid visa in your expired passport along with a new valid passport for travel and admission to the United States. 

Edited November 24, 2019 by Captain Ewok

NOTE: The above information does not address the specific requirements for any given case and is not a substitute for the advice of an attorney.

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The Best in International Treatment

Are you considering cosmetic surgery, heart surgery, or orthopedic surgery in your local hospital, but the cost is sky-high? With medical travel, you can save up to 60 percent of the cost while still receiving high-quality care. Below are some categories of treatment services you can obtain abroad, as well as the hospitals or clinics that offer them.

Featured Treatments

• IVF with Egg / Sperm Donor
• In Vitro Fertilization (IVF)
• Dental Implants
• Veneers/Laminates

Cosmetic Surgery

• Breast Augmentation/Reduction
• Hair Transplantation
• Epilepsy Surgery
• Parkinson's Treatment

ORTHOPEDICS

• Total Hip Replacement
• Total Knee Replacement

WEIGHT LOSS SURGERY

• Adjustable Gastric Banding
• Gastric Sleeve

MedicalTourism.com

MedicalTourism.com is a free, confidential, independent resource for patients and industry providers. Our mission is to provide a central portal where patients, medical tourism providers, hospitals, clinics, employers, and insurance companies can all find the information they need. Our site focuses on patients looking for specific knowledge in the fields of medical tourism, dental tourism, and health tourism.

Passing Thru Travel

Top Destinations for Health and Medical Tourism in 2024

Posted: February 15, 2024 | Last updated: February 15, 2024

Health and medical tourism has become increasingly popular in recent years, with many people traveling abroad for high-quality medical treatments, wellness retreats, and alternative therapies. These destinations offer top-notch medical services and a chance to recuperate in a relaxing environment. This guide takes you through 15 global destinations renowned for their medical and wellness services.

Bangkok, Thailand

You’ll discover a world-renowned center for medical tourism in Bangkok where cutting-edge healthcare meets affordability and exceptional service. As you navigate the city, you’ll find state-of-the-art hospitals and clinics offering a wide range of medical treatments, from cosmetic surgery and dental care to comprehensive health check-ups. These facilities are known for their highly trained medical professionals, many of whom have international experience and qualifications.

The allure of Bangkok for medical tourism isn’t just in the cost savings but also in the opportunity to recuperate in a vibrant city known for its rich culture, delicious cuisine, and warm hospitality. Whether you’re exploring the bustling streets, relaxing in a luxurious hotel, or enjoying a tranquil recovery by the picturesque Chao Phraya River, Bangkok provides an ideal setting for both your medical and travel needs. You could even head to one of the southernmost islands, such as Koh Samui, for rest and recuperation.

Services: Cosmetic surgery, dental care, and wellness retreats.

Insider’s Tip: Many hospitals offer packages, including post-treatment recovery in luxury accommodations.

How To Get There: Fly into Suvarnabhumi Airport, served by many international airlines.

Budapest, Hungary

Budapest has carved a niche for itself in the world of medical tourism, particularly noted for its excellent dental care and historic thermal baths. Here, you’ll find top-notch dental clinics offering a range of services at prices significantly lower than in many Western countries without compromising on quality or expertise.

Beyond dental care, Budapest is famed for its thermal baths, sourced from natural hot springs, known for their therapeutic properties. These baths are not just about relaxation; they’re a traditional form of wellness deeply ingrained in the city’s culture. While benefiting from affordable, high-quality medical services, you also get to immerse yourself in the charm of a city that seamlessly blends its rich history with a vibrant contemporary lifestyle.

Wandering through Budapest’s grand architecture and along the Danube, you’ll experience this beautiful city’s unique blend of wellness and culture.

Services: Dental care and thermal baths for wellness.

Insider’s Tip: Schedule visits to thermal baths for natural healing.

How To Get There: Fly to Budapest Ferenc Liszt International Airport.

Seoul, South Korea

Seoul is a global leader in medical tourism, especially renowned for its advancements in cosmetic surgery and dermatology. As you explore Seoul, you’ll encounter state-of-the-art medical facilities that offer a wide array of cosmetic procedures, from innovative skincare treatments to high-precision plastic surgeries, all performed by highly skilled doctors. These clinics often combine the latest technology with a personalized approach, ensuring both top-quality results and a comfortable experience.

The city itself, a blend of modernity and tradition, provides an exciting backdrop for your medical journey. Whether you’re recovering in a luxury hotel or exploring vibrant neighborhoods like Gangnam, known for its high concentration of clinics, Seoul offers a unique experience where cutting-edge medical care meets rich cultural exploration. This fusion of high-tech healthcare and dynamic urban life makes Seoul a compelling destination for anyone seeking medical services in a cosmopolitan setting.

Services: Advanced plastic surgery and dermatological treatments.

Insider’s Tip: Explore Gangnam district, known for its high concentration of clinics.

How To Get There: Fly into Incheon International Airport.

Find a serene and lush paradise that has become a sought-after destination for medical tourism, known for its affordable yet high-quality medical services in Costa Rica. As you explore this Central American gem, you’ll discover a range of medical offerings, from dental procedures to cosmetic surgeries, all provided in state-of-the-art facilities by experienced healthcare professionals.

What sets Costa Rica apart is its ability to combine medical treatments with a chance to recuperate in a tranquil, natural setting. Imagine recovering amidst the backdrop of rainforests, pristine beaches, and rich biodiversity. This harmonious blend of top-tier medical care and a peaceful environment enhances your recovery and offers a unique opportunity to experience the pura vida lifestyle for which Costa Rica is renowned. Your journey to wellness in Costa Rica is complemented by warm hospitality and the chance to indulge in eco-friendly and wellness-oriented activities, making it a holistic health and travel experience.

Services: Dental work and cosmetic surgery in a natural, tranquil setting.

Insider’s Tip: Combine your medical trip with a stay near the beach or rainforest for relaxation.

How To Get There: Fly into Juan Santamaría International Airport.

Mumbai, India

In Mumbai, India, you’ll find yourself in a bustling metropolis that has emerged as a key destination for medical tourism, attracting patients worldwide with its combination of high-quality healthcare and affordability. The city’s medical facilities are equipped with advanced technology and staffed by skilled healthcare professionals, many of whom have trained internationally.

Mumbai specializes in a range of medical fields, including cardiac surgery, orthopedics, and transplants, offering services at a fraction of the cost compared to Western countries. Beyond the clinical aspect, Mumbai is a city steeped in culture and history, offering you a chance to experience the vibrant life of one of India’s most dynamic cities.

Whether you’re exploring the bustling markets, soaking in the diverse cultural heritage, or enjoying the local cuisine, Mumbai provides an enriching backdrop to your medical journey, blending world-class medical care with the warmth and vibrancy of Indian hospitality.

Services: High-quality cardiac surgery, orthopedics, and alternative medicine.

Insider’s Tip: Explore Ayurvedic retreats for holistic wellness.

How To Get There: Fly to Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj International Airport.

Istanbul, Turkey

Istanbul is at the crossroads of East and West, a city that has become a prominent hub for medical tourism, especially known for its hair transplantation and cosmetic dentistry expertise. As you navigate through Istanbul’s unique blend of historical grandeur and modern sophistication, you’ll find numerous clinics and hospitals offering high-quality medical services at competitive prices.

These facilities are often equipped with the latest technology and staffed by experienced professionals who provide personalized care. Its rich cultural tapestry enhances Istanbul’s appeal as a medical tourism destination, with landmarks such as the Hagia Sophia and the Grand Bazaar. Here, you can seamlessly combine your medical journey with the experience of exploring one of the world’s most historically rich and diverse cities.

Whether you’re strolling along the Bosphorus or savoring Turkish cuisine, Istanbul offers a unique setting where a wealth of cultural and historical experiences complements advanced medical treatments.

Services: Hair transplantation and cosmetic dentistry.

Insider’s Tip: Post-treatment, enjoy recovery in a city steeped in history and culture.

How To Get There: Istanbul Airport or Sabiha Gökçen International Airport.

Sao Paulo, Brazil

In Sao Paulo, you’ll find yourself in a bustling city that’s increasingly becoming a hotspot for medical tourism, particularly known for its excellence in cosmetic and plastic surgery. As you navigate through Sao Paulo, the largest city in South America, you’ll discover a range of high-quality medical facilities that offer a variety of procedures, from minimally invasive treatments to more complex surgeries, all performed by skilled and experienced surgeons.

The city’s medical services are priced competitively, attracting patients from around the globe. Beyond the operating room, Sao Paulo is a vibrant metropolis brimming with cultural attractions, diverse cuisine, and dynamic nightlife. The opportunity to recover in such a lively urban environment adds an appealing dimension to your medical journey, combining top-tier medical care with the unique experience of exploring one of Brazil’s most dynamic cities.

Services: Cosmetic and plastic surgery.

Insider’s Tip: Brazil is known for its expertise in cosmetic procedures.

How To Get There: Fly into São Paulo–Guarulhos International Airport.

Barcelona, Spain

Barcelona beautifully marries cutting-edge medical facilities with the charm of a vibrant cultural hub, making it an increasingly popular destination for medical tourism. Known mainly for its advanced fertility treatments and cosmetic surgery, Barcelona’s medical centers boast state-of-the-art technology and highly skilled professionals, offering quality care at competitive prices.

As you embark on your medical journey in this city, you’re also treated to its rich architectural heritage, from Gaudi’s masterpieces to the Gothic Quarter’s winding streets. The city’s Mediterranean climate and inviting beaches provide a serene backdrop for recovery and relaxation. Whether you’re enjoying tapas on a sun-drenched terrace or strolling along the bustling Las Ramblas, Barcelona offers a holistic experience where an immersive cultural journey complements exceptional medical care.

Services: Advanced fertility treatments and cosmetic surgery.

Insider’s Tip: Take advantage of the city’s rich cultural and gastronomic scene during recovery.

How To Get There: Barcelona-El Prat Airport.

Tel Aviv, Israel

Tel Aviv is rapidly gaining recognition for its advanced medical treatments and state-of-the-art healthcare facilities. This vibrant coastal city offers a wide range of medical services, including cutting-edge cancer treatments and innovative medical technologies, attracting patients from across the globe. Tel Aviv’s medical institutions are known for their skilled professionals and personalized patient care, set within a competitive pricing framework.

Beyond healthcare, Tel Aviv is a lively, modern city known for its beautiful Mediterranean beaches, rich cultural scene, and bustling nightlife. The city’s warm climate and welcoming atmosphere provide an ideal environment for recovery and relaxation. As you walk along the beachfront promenade or explore the historic streets of Jaffa, Tel Aviv offers a unique blend of top-tier medical care and a lively urban experience, making it an attractive destination for medical tourists seeking both treatment and an enriching travel experience.

Services: Cutting-edge cancer treatments and medical technologies.

Insider’s Tip: Explore the Mediterranean coast for a relaxing recovery.

How To Get There: Ben Gurion Airport is the main international gateway.

Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

Kuala Lumpur has established itself as a significant player in the field of medical tourism, offering an impressive array of healthcare services at highly competitive rates. The capital city of Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur, is home to numerous internationally accredited hospitals and clinics that provide a wide range of medical procedures, from complex surgeries to wellness check-ups, all performed by qualified and experienced medical professionals.

These facilities are equipped with modern medical technology, ensuring high treatment standards. Kuala Lumpur’s appeal as a medical tourism destination is further enhanced by its rich cultural diversity, delicious cuisine, and a blend of modern and traditional lifestyles. The city’s excellent infrastructure and English-speaking medical staff make navigating your healthcare journey and the city itself a smooth and comfortable experience.

Whether exploring the iconic Petronas Twin Towers or indulging in the local food scene, Kuala Lumpur offers a unique setting where quality healthcare meets cultural richness.

Services: Affordable and quality healthcare covering various specialties.

Insider’s Tip: Malaysia’s healthcare system is ranked among the best in the world.

How To Get There: Kuala Lumpur International Airport.

Singapore is a city-state known for its efficiency and modernity; you’ll discover a premier destination for medical tourism, renowned for its exceptional healthcare system. This bustling metropolis boasts state-of-the-art medical facilities that are among the best in the world, staffed with highly trained medical professionals who provide a wide range of specialized treatments and procedures.

Singapore’s hospitals are known for their high standards of patient care and cutting-edge medical technology, offering services from complex surgeries to preventive medicine. The city, known for its cleanliness and order, provides a comfortable and stress-free environment for your medical journey. As you navigate this cosmopolitan city, you can also enjoy its diverse cultural tapestry, lush green spaces, and a culinary scene that’s a melting pot of Asian cuisines.

In Singapore, your pursuit of health and wellness is complemented by the experience of a city that seamlessly blends traditional charm with a forward-thinking approach.

Services: State-of-the-art medical technology and facilities.

Insider’s Tip: Post-treatment, enjoy the city’s clean and organized environment.

How To Get There: Singapore Changi Airport.

Dubai, United Arab Emirates

Dubai is a luxurious and futuristic city that has rapidly emerged as a key destination for medical tourism. Known for its lavish lifestyle and architectural wonders, Dubai also boasts world-class medical facilities offering a range of high-end medical and wellness services. These facilities are equipped with the latest technology and staffed by top-notch medical professionals, catering to a variety of health needs, from elective surgeries to wellness retreats.

The city’s emphasis on luxury and comfort extends to its healthcare services, ensuring a premium experience for medical tourists. As you explore Dubai, you can indulge in its opulent shopping malls, stunning skyscrapers like the Burj Khalifa, and relaxing beach resorts, which make the perfect backdrop for a recuperative stay. Dubai’s blend of advanced healthcare, luxury, and a unique desert landscape offers a distinctive and indulgent medical tourism experience.

Services: Luxury medical treatments and wellness retreats.

Insider’s Tip: Experience high-end recovery facilities in this modern metropolis.

How To Get There: Dubai International Airport.

Los Angeles, USA

In Los Angeles, you’ll immerse yourself in a city that’s not just the epicenter of entertainment but also a growing hub for medical tourism. Known for its advanced medical treatments, particularly in specialties like oncology and cardiology, Los Angeles hosts a range of top-tier hospitals and clinics. These facilities are renowned for their cutting-edge technology and expert medical staff, ensuring you receive high-quality care.

The city’s diverse and wellness-focused culture complements your medical journey, offering numerous options for healthy living and recovery. As you navigate the sprawling metropolis, you can indulge in its unique blend of urban excitement and natural beauty, from the Hollywood hills to the serene Pacific coastline. Los Angeles provides an ideal backdrop for those seeking world-class medical treatment while enjoying Southern California’s vibrant lifestyle and scenic diversity.

Services: Advanced medical treatments, especially in oncology and cardiology.

Insider’s Tip: The city’s wellness culture is ideal for recuperation.

How To Get There: Los Angeles International Airport (LAX).

Tijuana, Mexico

Tijuana, just across the border from San Diego, you’ll discover a city that has become a go-to destination for medical tourism, especially known for its affordable dental care and bariatric surgery. This bustling border town offers quality medical services at a fraction of the cost typically found in the United States, drawing patients from all over North America. Tijuana’s medical facilities are modern and well-equipped, staffed by experienced and often bilingual healthcare professionals.

The city’s proximity to the United States adds to its appeal, providing easy accessibility for those seeking efficient and cost-effective medical treatments. Beyond its healthcare offerings, Tijuana boasts a vibrant culture, with lively markets, authentic Mexican cuisine, and a warm, welcoming atmosphere. In Tijuana, you can experience the benefits of affordable medical care while enjoying the rich cultural experiences that this unique border city has to offer.

Services: Affordable dental care and bariatric surgery.

Insider’s Tip: It is a popular destination for Americans due to its proximity and lower costs.

How To Get There: General Abelardo L. Rodríguez International Airport or cross the border from San Diego.

Vienna, Austria

Vienna is renowned for its classical music, stunning architecture, and, increasingly, for its high-quality preventive medicine and diagnostics. This elegant capital offers a range of sophisticated healthcare services, focusing on preventive care that emphasizes early detection and holistic treatment approaches.

Vienna’s medical facilities are world-class, featuring state-of-the-art technology and staffed by highly trained medical professionals. The city’s healthcare system is recognized for its efficiency and patient-centric approach, ensuring a comfortable and reassuring experience.

Beyond its medical offerings, Vienna is enchanted with its imperial history, vibrant cultural scene, and cozy coffee houses, making it an ideal destination for those seeking top-tier medical services in a serene and culturally rich setting. In Vienna, the pursuit of health is complemented by the opportunity to immerse oneself in a city steeped in history and renowned for its contributions to art and science.

Services: High-quality preventive medicine and diagnostics.

Insider’s Tip: Enjoy the city’s classical music scene and historical ambiance during your stay.

How To Get There: Vienna International Airport.

The Bottom Line

Traveling for health and medical treatments combines the necessity of healthcare with the pleasure of experiencing new cultures and environments. Each of these destinations offers unique medical specialties.

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The post Top Destinations for Health and Medical Tourism in 2024 republished on Passing Thru with permission from The Green Voyage .

Featured Image Credit: Shutterstock / ArtFamily.

For transparency, this content was partly developed with AI assistance and carefully curated by an experienced editor to be informative and ensure accuracy.

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Medical Tourism

Medical tourism insurance: a guide to understanding coverage and protection.

Medical tourism has emerged as a popular option for patients who are looking for affordable and high-quality medical care outside their home country. However, one of the most significant concerns of patients considering medical tourism is the lack of understanding of insurance coverage and protection while receiving medical treatment abroad. This is where medical tourism insurance comes in handy.

Medical tourism insurance is a specialized type of insurance that provides coverage for patients who travel to another country for medical treatment. It covers various aspects of the medical journey, including pre-travel medical consultations, medical procedures, and post-treatment follow-up care. However, it is essential to consider several factors when choosing an insurance provider for medical tourism.

The first thing that patients should do is to review their current medical insurance policy to determine if it provides any coverage for medical tourism. While some policies may provide limited coverage, others may not cover medical tourism at all. Patients must also determine what medical procedures their insurance policy covers and if there are any exclusions.

If a patient's current insurance policy does not provide sufficient coverage for medical tourism, they must consider purchasing additional medical tourism insurance. It is essential to research various insurance providers, compare coverage, and read reviews before choosing a provider. Patients must also ensure that the insurance provider is licensed and regulated by the country's governing body to provide medical tourism insurance.

When purchasing medical tourism insurance, patients must consider the type of coverage provided. Some insurance providers offer comprehensive coverage, including travel and medical coverage, while others only provide medical coverage. Patients must also review the policy's terms and conditions, including deductibles, co-payments, and coverage limits. The policy should also include coverage for emergency medical evacuation and repatriation services, which are essential in case of an emergency.

Another critical factor to consider is the insurance provider's network of healthcare providers. Patients must ensure that the insurance provider has a network of accredited hospitals and healthcare providers in the destination country. The insurance provider should also have a network of medical evacuation and repatriation services to transport patients back to their home country in case of an emergency.

Choosing the right insurance provider for medical tourism is crucial as it can make a significant difference in the quality of care and peace of mind for patients. Patients must understand their current insurance policy, research various insurance providers, and review the policy's terms and conditions before purchasing medical tourism insurance. It is essential to choose a licensed and regulated insurance provider with a network of accredited healthcare providers in the destination country.

In addition to choosing the right insurance provider, patients must also take other precautions to ensure their safety and well-being during their medical journey. Patients should research the destination country's healthcare system, medical facilities, and the medical procedures they will undergo. Patients must also follow the doctor's instructions carefully and take the prescribed medication as directed.

In conclusion, medical tourism insurance provides coverage and protection for patients seeking medical treatment abroad. Patients must carefully review their current insurance policy, research various insurance providers, and review the policy's terms and conditions before purchasing medical tourism insurance. It is essential to choose a licensed and regulated insurance provider with a network of accredited healthcare providers in the destination country. With proper research and planning, patients can have a safe and successful medical tourism experience.

To receive a free quote please click on the link: https://www.medicaltourism.com/get-a-quote

Patients are advised to seek hospitals that are accredited by Global Healthcare and only work with medical tourism facilitators who are certified by Global Healthcare Accreditation or who have undergone certification from the Certified Medical Travel Professionals (CMTP). This ensures that the highest standards in the industry are met. Click the link to check out hospitals accredited by the Global Healthcare Accreditation: https://www.globalhealthcareaccreditation.com/

It is recommended that consumers do not share their personal and confidential information on random medical tourism platforms as they may not be secure. Consumers must be cautious when disclosing their private information as some organizations may not protect their privacy and could misuse their information. Additionally, there are agencies that may prioritize their commissions over the well-being of the patients. Consumers should avoid choosing the cheapest price and instead make a thorough comparison across multiple facilitators to make an informed decision.

Unveiling the Power of Social Media Marketing in Medical Tourism

Korea: turning the focus to an emerging global leader in medical tourism, exploring the surge of cosmetic tourism: trends and considerations in aesthetic procedures abroad, holistic healing: exploring integrative medicine and wellness retreats, meeting the surge: the growing demand for knee replacement surgeries and advances in the field, south korea, a medical tourism leader pioneering the future of medicine  , surgical solutions for obesity and weight management ~ a team effort, south korea ~ stepping into the spotlight in global healthcare, south africa ~ making great strides in healthcare, continue reading, best countries for stomach cancer treatment: a global perspective, ponderas academic hospital: elevating medical tourism with jci accreditation and personalized care, featured reading, guide to choosing korea for medical travel, transforming healthcare through innovation: ceo spotlight interview with matthew a. love, medical tourism magazine.

The Medical Tourism Magazine (MTM), known as the “voice” of the medical tourism industry, provides members and key industry experts with the opportunity to share important developments, initiatives, themes, topics and trends that make the medical tourism industry the booming market it is today.

These are the top 10 countries for travel and tourism

The US retains its prime position in the World Economic Forum's latest Travel & Tourism Development Index. Image:  Unsplash/EveLazco

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• Pent-up demand after the pandemic is expected to drive passenger numbers back up to pre-pandemic levels in 2024.
• The recovery of the travel and tourism sector since the pandemic has been uneven, however, and some nations are better placed than others to respond to the challenges and opportunities of the future.
• The top three best-placed countries for travel and tourism are the US, Spain and Japan, according to the World Economic Forum’s Travel & Tourism Development Index.

If you were desperate to get away after the restrictions and enforced staying at home of the pandemic years, you were far from alone.

Global international tourist arrivals are expected to meet pre-pandemic levels in 2024 driven by this pent-up demand. But, the recovery of the travel and tourism sector since the pandemic has not been without challenges. Add to that macroeconomic, geopolitical and environmental factors, which have added pressures on the industry.

These pressures will amplify and evolve over the coming years and, along with the growth of digital technologies and AI, may well force the travel industry to adapt.

Some economies are better placed than others to make these changes, respond to future risks and ensure that travel and tourism is a driver of economic growth and prosperity.

With this in mind, the World Economic Forum’s Travel & Tourism Development Index (TTDI) aims to serve as a benchmark for stakeholders to gauge progress, inform decisions and policies, and encourage sustainable and resilient growth.

A mixed recovery in challenging conditions

Europe dominates the top 10 economies for T&T, as ranked by the 2023 index, although the top spot is clinched by the US.

But the index also shows that while 71 of the 119 economies it ranks improved their scores between 2019 and 2023, the average improvement is just 0.7% above pre-pandemic levels.

On the one hand, the rebound in travel and tourism has coincided with rising global air route capacity and connectivity, improved international openness, and increased investment in natural and cultural resources driving tourism. On the other hand, non-leisure demand is still lagging, there are ongoing labour shortages, and air route capacity and connectivity, capital investment and productivity have struggled to keep pace with demand.

This has created a supply and demand imbalance which, along with inflationary pressures, has led to reduced price competitiveness and service disruptions.

Europe and Asia-Pacific have the most favourable conditions

Of the top 30 TTDI scorers in 2023, 26 are high-income countries. Nineteen of them are based in Europe, and seven in Asia Pacific.

These countries benefit from favourable business environments and labour markets, open travel policies, advanced technology adoption, excellent transport and tourism infrastructure, and rich natural, cultural and non-leisure attractions.

As a result, this group of 30 accounted for more than three-quarters of T&T industry GDP in 2022, and 70% of GDP growth between 2020 and 2022.

But although this group is leading the way, many of the above-average improvements in scores come from low- to upper-middle-income countries, including sub-Saharan and North Africa, Eurasia, South America, South Asia, and the Balkans and Eastern Europe.

While many have shown improvements, these less affluent countries still make up the vast majority of below-average scorers in the index. More investment is needed to help increase their share of the market and improve their readiness for future risks and opportunities.

Progress needed on resilience and equality

The ability of the travel and tourism sector to grow is limited by challenges like tight labour markets, growing fiscal constraints and concerns around health and security conditions. Labour market resilience will be an increasingly important factor for the sector, but issues like equality of job opportunities, workers’ rights and social protection are holding many economies – particularly low- and middle-income ones – back in this area.

As other sectors proceed to decarbonize, the aviation sector could account for a much higher share of global greenhouse gas emissions by mid-century than its 2%-3% share today.

Sustainable aviation fuels (SAF) can reduce the life-cycle carbon footprint of aviation fuel by up to 80%, but they currently make up less than 0.1% of total aviation fuel consumption. Enabling a shift from fossil fuels to SAFs will require a significant increase in production, which is a costly investment.

The Forum’s Clean Skies for Tomorrow (CST) Coalition is a global initiative driving the transition to sustainable aviation fuels as part of the aviation industry’s ambitious efforts to achieve carbon-neutral flying.

The coalition brings together government leaders, climate experts and CEOs from aviation, energy, finance and other sectors who agree on the urgent need to help the aviation industry reach net-zero carbon emissions by 2050.

The coalition aims to advance the commercial scale of viable production of sustainable low-carbon aviation fuels (bio and synthetic) for broad adoption in the industry by 2030. Initiatives include a mechanism for aggregating demand for carbon-neutral flying, a co-investment vehicle and geographically specific value-chain industry blueprints.

Learn more about the Clean Skies for Tomorrow Coalition's impact and contact us to find out how you can get involved.

Another major hurdle for the sector is balancing growth with sustainability. Although there has been broad progress in areas like energy sustainability, some progress – like the fall in emissions seen during the pandemic – is likely to only be temporary.

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License and Republishing

World Economic Forum articles may be republished in accordance with the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International Public License, and in accordance with our Terms of Use.

The views expressed in this article are those of the author alone and not the World Economic Forum.

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