european voyages of discovery pdf

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Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History Essays

Europe and the age of exploration.

Salvator Mundi

Albrecht Dürer

The Celestial Map- Northern Hemisphere

Astronomical table clock

Astronomicum Caesareum

Michael Ostendorfer

Mirror clock

Movement attributed to Master CR

Portable diptych sundial

Hans Tröschel the Elder

Celestial globe with clockwork

Gerhard Emmoser

The Celestial Globe-Southern Hemisphere

James Voorhies Department of European Paintings, The Metropolitan Museum of Art

October 2002

Artistic Encounters between Europe, Africa, Asia, and the Americas The great period of discovery from the latter half of the fifteenth through the sixteenth century is generally referred to as the Age of Exploration. It is exemplified by the Genoese navigator, Christopher Columbus (1451–1506), who undertook a voyage to the New World under the auspices of the Spanish monarchs, Isabella I of Castile (r. 1474–1504) and Ferdinand II of Aragon (r. 1479–1516). The Museum’s jerkin ( 26.196 ) and helmet ( 32.132 ) beautifully represent the type of clothing worn by the people of Spain during this period. The age is also recognized for the first English voyage around the world by Sir Francis Drake (ca. 1540–1596), who claimed the San Francisco Bay for Queen Elizabeth ; Vasco da Gama’s (ca. 1460–1524) voyage to India , making the Portuguese the first Europeans to sail to that country and leading to the exploration of the west coast of Africa; Bartolomeu Dias’ (ca. 1450–1500) discovery of the Cape of Good Hope; and Ferdinand Magellan’s (1480–1521) determined voyage to find a route through the Americas to the east, which ultimately led to discovery of the passage known today as the Strait of Magellan.

To learn more about the impact on the arts of contact between Europeans, Africans, and Indians, see  The Portuguese in Africa, 1415–1600 ,  Afro-Portuguese Ivories , African Christianity in Kongo , African Christianity in Ethiopia ,  The Art of the Mughals before 1600 , and the Visual Culture of the Atlantic World .

Scientific Advancements and the Arts in Europe In addition to the discovery and colonization of far off lands, these years were filled with major advances in cartography and navigational instruments, as well as in the study of anatomy and optics. The visual arts responded to scientific and technological developments with new ideas about the representation of man and his place in the world. For example, the formulation of the laws governing linear perspective by Filippo Brunelleschi (1377–1446) in the early fifteenth century, along with theories about idealized proportions of the human form, influenced artists such as Albrecht Dürer (1471–1528) and Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519). Masters of illusionistic technique, Leonardo and Dürer created powerfully realistic images of corporeal forms by delicately rendering tendons, skin tissues, muscles, and bones, all of which demonstrate expertly refined anatomical understanding. Dürer’s unfinished Salvator Mundi ( 32.100.64 ), begun about 1505, provides a unique opportunity to see the artist’s underdrawing and, in the beautifully rendered sphere of the earth in Christ’s left hand, metaphorically suggests the connection of sacred art and the realms of science and geography.

Although the Museum does not have objects from this period specifically made for navigational purposes, its collection of superb instruments and clocks reflects the advancements in technology and interest in astronomy of the time, for instance Petrus Apianus’ Astronomicum Caesareum ( 25.17 ). This extraordinary Renaissance book contains equatoria supplied with paper volvelles, or rotating dials, that can be used for calculating positions of the planets on any given date as seen from a given terrestrial location. The celestial globe with clockwork ( 17.190.636 ) is another magnificent example of an aid for predicting astronomical events, in this case the location of stars as seen from a given place on earth at a given time and date. The globe also illustrates the sun’s apparent movement through the constellations of the zodiac.

Portable devices were also made for determining the time in a specific latitude. During the late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries, the combination of compass and sundial became an aid for travelers. The ivory diptych sundial was a specialty of manufacturers in Nuremberg. The Museum’s example ( 03.21.38 ) features a multiplicity of functions that include giving the time in several systems of counting daylight hours, converting hours read by moonlight into sundial hours, predicting the nights that would be illuminated by the moon, and determining the dates of the movable feasts. It also has a small opening for inserting a weather vane in order to determine the direction of the wind, a feature useful for navigators. However, its primary use would have been meteorological.

Voorhies, James. “Europe and the Age of Exploration.” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History . New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/expl/hd_expl.htm (October 2002)

Further Reading

Levenson, Jay A., ed. Circa 1492: Art in the Age of Exploration . Exhibition catalogue. Washington, D.C.: National Gallery of Art, 1991.

Vezzosi, Alessandro. Leonardo da Vinci: The Mind of the Renaissance . New York: Abrams, 1997.

Additional Essays by James Voorhies

• Voorhies, James. “ Pablo Picasso (1881–1973) .” (October 2004)
• Voorhies, James. “ Francisco de Goya (1746–1828) and the Spanish Enlightenment .” (October 2003)
• Voorhies, James. “ Paul Cézanne (1839–1906) .” (October 2004)
• Voorhies, James. “ School of Paris .” (October 2004)
• Voorhies, James. “ Art of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries in Naples .” (October 2003)
• Voorhies, James. “ Elizabethan England .” (October 2002)
• Voorhies, James. “ Alfred Stieglitz (1864–1946) and His Circle .” (October 2004)
• Voorhies, James. “ Fontainebleau .” (October 2002)
• Voorhies, James. “ Post-Impressionism .” (October 2004)
• Voorhies, James. “ Domestic Art in Renaissance Italy .” (October 2002)
• Voorhies, James. “ Surrealism .” (October 2004)

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The European discovery of America : the northern voyages, A.D. 500-1600

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Voyages of Discovery Captain Cook and the Exploration of the Pacific

• by Lynne Withey (Author)
• January 1989
• First Edition
• Paperback $31.95,  £27.00

Title Details

Rights: Available worldwide Pages: 520 ISBN: 9780520065642 Trim Size: 6 x 9

About the Book

Voyages of Discovery is the story of the last great age of European sea exploration, when state-supported expeditions driven by both scientific and political motives set out to map the remaining unknown parts of the globe. Focusing on the voyages of the preeminent explorer, Captain James Cook, who commanded three round-the-world expeditions between 1768 and 1780, Lynne Withey illuminates the Pacific islanders' views of their "discoverers" as well.

About the Author

Lynne Withey has taught history at the University of Iowa, Boston University, and the University of California at Berkeley. She is the author of Dearest Friend: A Life of Abigail Adams.

Table of Contents

Preface Prologue: The Royal Society Plans a Voyage I Foundations: Pacific Exploration Before Cook 1. The World Beyond Europe 2. Old Ideas and New Strategies 3. Paradise Discovered 4. Preparations II The Discovery of Polynesia 5. Tahiti 6. Amateur Ethnographers 7. In Search of the Southern Continent 8. Homeward 9. Mr. Banks's Voyage III Circumnavigating the Antarctic 10. To the Antarctic 11. Return to Tahiti 12. The Second Antarctic Summer 13. Island Hopping Across the Pacific 14. The Islands of Quiros 15. Mai IV The Search for a Northwest Passage 16. The "Friendly Islands" 17. Mai Returns 18. To the Arctic 19. Kealakekua Bay 20. Cook the Hero V Exploration and Empire: The Legacy of Cook's Voyages 21. Exploiting the Pacific: Convicts, Furs, and Breadfruit 22. The End of an Era: Vancouver in the Pacific References Index

• Silver Medal, Commonwealth Club of California

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Unit 4 European Voyages of Discovery (Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries)

The Rise of the Modern West UNIT 4 EUROPEAN VOYAGES OF DISCOVERY (FIFTEENTH AND SIXTEENTH CENTURIES)

Structure 4.0 Objectives 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Motives of Voyages and Expansion by the Iberian States ( Portugal and Spain ) 4.3 Role of Navigational /Technical Knowledge 4.4 Importance of Renaissance and Sea Voyages 4.5 Discoveries and Voyages 4.6 Nature of Portuguese and Spanish Possessions (Early Colonial Empires ) 4.7 Types of the Colonies 4.8 Slavery : Plantation and Mining 4.9 Impact of Colonization 4.10 Let Us Sum Up 4.11 Keywords 4.12 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises 4.13 Suggested Readings 4.0 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to: discuss the process of early colonization; examine the dynamics of economy and polity within Europe , and linkages with the New World ;

familiarize the processes by which Europe’s economy benefited from colonial expansion as well as exploitation of indigenous and slave labour;

analyze the impact of trade and colonization on Western Europe , the New World, West Africa and parts of Asia ; and Understand the concept of Eurocentrism . 4.1 INTRODUCTION In the fifteenth century Europe entered into an age of international trade and subsequently commercial activity. The era was marked by full swing maritime activities as well as geographical discoveries by the Iberian peninsula, that led to the findings of the western Hemisphere and significant expansion in America, Asia and Africa. It was the Portuguese and the Spain who pioneered the discovery of new sea routes, encouraged voyages and formed early colonial empires in fifteenth and early sixteenth century. They led expeditions and patronized search 42 to the unknown and distant lands, and were followed by the north-western European Voyages of European states. From fifteenth to eighteenth centuries the process of colonization Discovery intensified, resulting into conflicts, wars , and rivalry. European states began to embark on a series of explorations that inaugurated a new chapter in world history mentioned as the Age of Discovery .

Discovery, or the Age of Exploration . This era is defined by figures such as Ferdinand Magellan , whose 1519–1522 expedition was the first to traverse the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean and the first to sail the globe.

4.2 MOTIVES OF VOYAGES AND EXPANSION BY THE IBERIAN STATES (PORTUGAL AND SPAIN)

In this sub unit we will discuss the factors that motivated the states towards explorations and conquests . Amid the many motives which led Europeans to take part in the overseas movements of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, the desire was to strike the infidel a blow, to strengthen their native state , to ascertain the shape and the nature of the earth , to gain great wealth or perhaps all of these. Adam Smith had stated in 1770, the discovery of America and the route to the Cape of Good Hope are the two most important events in history of mankind. D.K. Fieldhouse felt this as a Eurocentric view and said that the Turkish power stretched from western Mediterranean to the Indian Ocean , India had colonized South East Asia earlier and controlled much of the trade, Muslims over Middle East and Southern Asia and towards the East was the Chinese. The discoveries and colonial empires affected the entire world and they became part of the European world-economy as a whole. The overseas expansion liberated Europe from geographical and psychological barriers. It is relevant to understand the motives for overseas voyages, explorations and expansion and pertinent to raise question what led to the rise of colonial empires that was initiated by Portugal and Spain?

It is not easy to generalize the motives of the voyages and expansion. Prior to the fifteenth century trade was a monopoly of the merchants from Venice and Genoa through the Mediterranean sea that brought in variety of goods like spices, cotton cloth and silk through Levant . It provided an impulse in the fifteenth century and motivated the others to turn to the lucrative trade. As per G V Scammel, gamut of motives have been identified, be it economic or ideological factors or their adventurous temperament, for European colonization. The understanding of motives of early exploration by European sea voyages are factors like God, Gold and Glory highlighting religious, economic and personal factors. The Mediterranean (Iberian Peninsula) between Spain and North Africa was conquered by Islam until the capture of Ceuta by Portugal in 1415. Portuguese made early transition into maritime reconnaissance and accomplished her part in the Reconquista from the Moors where as Castile was still confronted by the Moorish enclave of Granada until its fall in1492. The fight against Muslim rulers referred to as the “Reconquest”— inspired a sense of commonality among Catholics. Historians put Dorn Pedro alongside his brother Prince Henry the Navigator as architects of early maritime exploration, trade, and conquest in the name of Portugal. Scholars acknowledge his voyages but also question the motives behind voyages. The monarchy ’s need for external sources of wealth and power cannot 43 The Rise of the Modern West be overlooked. Under the guidance of Prince Henry the Portuguese explored the West African coastline with the aim of capturing the supplies of gold from South of the Sahara, one of the sources of the Moors’ wealth, and also attacking Islam thus making two motives work simultaneously. Fifteenth century Castile then was contented with the acquisition of the Canary Islands . God implied factors especially the history of crusades between the Christians and the Muslims which led to the discovery of new sea routes. Gold dust can be identified with economic motives of exploring this region. It was sailors dream to find Antilla, a mythical land with its riches. Glory was for those who undertook the task of discoveries and voyages. According to J. H. Parry with the capture of Ceuta the crusading zeal passed to its modern stage and took form of struggle to carry the Christian faith along with European commerce to other parts of the world. Even the papal privileges granted were mainly concerned with the trading monopolies and advancement of Christendom . Henry desired the discovery of those regions whose inhabitants were to worship the Christ with the hope of Indies and Prester John . Internal politics , economic pressures and personal factors were more responsible for exploring the Atlantic coast of Africa. It was also to defuse the internal situation in Portugal, since military expansion would give the nobility something to direct their attention while commercial expansion would strengthen the position of the Royal Treasury. Portuguese achievements were confined to deliberate intentions, be it religious or economic motives in Africa and Asia or to break Venetian monopoly and establish trading base and to organize the explorers, and cannot overlook the sheer urge for discovery. Despite Portugal’s small size and meagre population its achievements cannot be overlooked.

Scholars also consider the rise of Ottoman Empire or the fall of Constantinople in the hands of the Turks to have obstructed the land route to Asia and goods from Red Sea stopped coming and this encouraged them to look for diverse routes. This argument problematizes the fact that despite rising spice trade the prices were falling. The Turks did not conquer Levant till the sixteenth century, by then the Portuguese were already sailing across and the Turkish were reducing taxes, in other words they facilitated trade. The dual motive for imperialism was ideology and wealth, aptly expressed by Bernal Diaz, who accompanied the conquistadores into Mexico in 1519: ‘We came here to serve God and also to get rich’. This period was marked by the rise of nation states in Western Europe where they conflicted as rivals for power and encouraged expeditions. European powers established militarized entrepots at key points in commercial networks and began to extend political authority and settlement.

Another motive that survives the argument has been the demographic factor. Scholars mention that throughout the Mediterranean there was increase in the population during the sixteenth century. At Seville immigrants were the ones attracted by voyages to the Indies, who came from everywhere and at Lisbon there was constant flow of immigrants. The expanding towns attracted attention of Italian merchants and the bankers. The overseas expedition provided more of land and resources. Others argue that when the initial voyages were made, Europe’s population was static or declining. Except for bullion rich Spanish Indies, emigrants were not keen to settle in the new discovered land, rather emigrants remained in short supply. Notwithstanding that in the sixteenth century the Iberian monarchies were obliged to seek supplies from European neighbors. Scammel says nor was there immense pressure to look for food. North Africa where Portugal first colonized was a grain producer. But in Morocco Portuguese were more 44 concerned with loot than food. In Atlantic Islands wheat was soon replaced by European Voyages of production of sugar and wine. The group of crops in which they were deficient Discovery was the spices, imported from Asia at huge expense.

The quest for gold of the early explorers is a more understandable motive. Ralph Davis talks about economic stresses and internal politics as main factors for voyages. The motive that holds ground is about Europe’s urge to economic aspects with the desire to locate gold and silver to meet the bullion shortage. Portuguese were happy to have found gold but it is not clear if it was their initial motive. Scholars feel that such economic determinants are doubtful in Portugal expansion as it was a poor country, overpopulated and economically weaker but still she looked for luxuries like sugar, spices. Braudel denies that Portugal was a poor country and it did provide a lot of commodities to Northern Europe. To explore oceanic routes to Asia was also curiosity of king Manuel of Portugal (1495- 1521). Philip II of Spain was keen to study the History of living things of Indies. There was also search for marvels as was being fantasized in the literature. The conquistadores, missionaries and officials may not have initiated in the advancement of learning but by 1500 missionary zeal was very important. The early explorations and new discoveries provided more resources and motives did vary during the expeditions. All this reflects that the motives were diverse, be it getting rid of poverty, misery or acquiring colonial wealth by occupying territories .

4.3 ROLE OF NAVIGATIONAL/TECHNICAL KNOWLEDGE

Besides the motives discussed above there were technical skills, theoretical knowledge that helped in enhancing European influence in overseas expansion. We cannot overlook the innovations in astronomical observations, ship building, cartography and the use of firearms that transformed reconnaissance expeditions to a colonial enterprise. A lot of geographical and astronomical knowledge from works of Ptolemy ’s Geography and Strabo ’s were translated into Latin . Aristotle talked about a westward route to Asia and Strabo projected India in the Atlantic. Christopher. Pierre d’ Alley work Imago Mundi in the fifteenth century identified eastward route for Asia. The early explorations banked on maps and navigational techniques. Florentine merchants in Lisbon were familiar with writings of Marco Polo and Niccolo Conti who visited Asia and revealed its wealth. Portuguese became aware from the Arab sources about the sea routes towards the East. Books were translated mainly by Acute in Hebrew to Latin during John II and it became a first practical manual to observe latitudes.

By thirteenth century Italian and Catalan hydrografers had drawn charts based on sea experience of Mediterranean, Black sea and Northern Europe. Portuguese contributed in the field of navigation and cartography as they prepared nautical charts that depicted different regions of the Atlantic, Iberia and Africa. To determine longitude , they used the altitude-distance method instead of the Pole star. The use of stars to estimate latitude was evident in 1462 and in 1480s the Portuguese astronomers determined the latitude of Southern Hemisphere where Pole star was not visible by devising a method using the sun. By fifteenth century the Portuguese cartographers marked a single meridian. The magnetic compass was a Chinese contribution; the astrolabe had been perfected by Arab navigators. Astrolabes were used for celestial navigation and quadrants were produced in 45 The Rise of the Modern West the fifteenth century. In the sixteenth century magnetic compass was used by Joao de Lisbon for determining magnetic declination. A cartographer Mercator projected an accurate picture of curved earth on a piece of paper. The use of gunpowder added to their military skill. The ships used were caravels (around 1430 ) that were lighter, slimmer, durable sea-going vessel was both fast and maneuverable and it carried naval guns.

4.4 IMPORTANCE OF RENAISSANCE AND SEA VOYAGES

Scholars have given importance to the spirit of Renaissance and Humanism in influencing discoveries. The invention of printing press led to translation of works in Latin and vernacular mainly dealing with geography. Two schools of interpretations are evident with their perspectives. The proponents were the “Renaissance School” who correlated the discoveries with the spread of Renaissance and its principles of curiosity and self-reliance in practical aspects, made desire of fame and glory and were inquisitive of the new world. This school felt that overseas discoveries were based on curiosity and experiments. Italy has been considered as an entry point to the Renaissance and thus was suggested that voyagers were mainly from there. Columbus was from Genoa but the city hardly participated in the Renaissance. Another perspective is that; the overseas expansion came from medieval preparations. It relates to most important motive for overseas expansion was economic mainly the quest for Asiatic spices (preservative qualities) and other luxury goods. The sea voyages were initiated way back in the middle Ages and they did inspire Portuguese mariners. Check Your Progress 1 1) Discuss the motives that led the Europeans to undertake voyages in the fifteenth and the sixteenth centuries? ......

2) How did technical knowledge help in overseas expansion? ......

46 3) Give answers in one word. European Voyages of Discovery a) Under whose guidance the Portuguese mariners explored the West African coastline? ......

b) Name Pierre d’ Alley work in the fifteenth century that identified eastward route for Asia......

c) In which year was Granada recovered by Spain? ......

4.5 DISCOVERIES AND VOYAGES

The ‘Great Discoveries’ of the late fifteenth century were part of European exploration and colonization, the colonial conquests of Spain and Portugal constituted a great break in human history. European expeditions, expansion, colonization and the possessions bordered on the three major oceans. According to Braudel the conquest of the high seas gave Europe world supremacy to last for long. For Portugal colonies included the Atlantic islands of Cape Verde , Madeira and the Azores ; the coast of Brazil ; fortress settlements in East Africa (like Mombasa ) and West Africa (like Sao Jorge); stretches of African coastline like Angola and Mozambique ; bases in the Indian Ocean like Ormuz, Goa , Calicut and Colombo ; and posts in the East in Macao, Malacca , Java , the Celebes and the Moluccas. Spain’s possessions, rather more compact, included the Canaries, West Indian Islands, the whole of Central America , some parts of South America and the Philippines .

Portugal possessed long ocean sea boards, fishing and sea fairing people and commercial class, emancipated from feudal interference. In 1415 the conquest of Ceuta was kept under Portuguese garrison meaning a European state took over the administration of an overseas possession in a Muslim territory . Ceuta provided a base for an attack on Gibraltar , other Moorish settlements and provided information for African exploration. By the end of the fifteenth century Portugal undertook the conquest of Cape Bojador , Cape Verde and Sierra Leone . The commodities like sugar, gold, ivory and subsequently slave labour led to the exploitation of these regions and the first European factory overseas at Arguim in 1448. A substitute of black pepper Malaguetta was also procured in this region. Through the conquest the Atlantic Islands of Canaries, Madeira, Azores Cape Verde were explored and colonized by the Iberian states. Henry took up Guinea 47 The Rise of the Modern West venture with a religious objective of converting African negroes to Christianity . But it was a diplomatic move and he used this and financed Portuguese traders and explorers. Systematic organization of African resources started and John II built a fort in Elmina in the Gold Coast to control gold trade. As part of a Treaty of Alcacovas in 1479 between Spain and Portugal, Spain recognized the Portuguese claims to monopolize fishing trade and navigation along the West African coast line and right to govern Atlantic Islands. Afonso V (1448–81) has been characterized by a preoccupation with military adventurism in North Africa as a result the Portuguese were able to attain Sao Jorge da Mina, a major center of gold trade. With this base and along with the chain of feitorias the Crown was able to double its revenues.

The phenomenon of Portuguese royal mercantilism reached its peak in the period from the 1480s to the 1520s . In 1481, John II dispatched explorers on achieving maritime contacts with India, of breaking into the Indian Ocean spice trade, and of establishing an alliance with supposed foreign Christian potentates like Prester John to complete the encirclement of Islam. It was Bartolomeu Diaz who actually crossed the Cape through the western coast of Africa that John II called as Cape of Good Hope as it helped find route to India. Meanwhile Pedro de Covilhao was sent in the opposite direction to enter the Indian Ocean. These voyages gave information of the entire African coastline. Vasco de Gama’s fleet arrived at the Cape of Good Hope and then Calicut in 1498. The fleet’s first major encounter with the East African trading network took place on Mozambique Island, Mombasa, and Malindi . His trip brought the cargo of pepper and cinnamon , actually met all the expectations that were desired to search the route to Asia. During Cabral voyage to India, on the way back, he touched the coast of Brazil.

Columbus with his readings and observations was convinced of westward expansion leading to Asia. Columbus had acquired a lot of practical knowledge in navigation. His voyages (1492-1504) were considered relevant especially discovery into an unknown continent of America that was opened to European exploitation. In his second voyage of discovery he explored numerous islands of West Indies but failed to explore anything that resembled India. Yet within fifty years the Spanish possessions had grown rapidly, with settlements being established far into the interior, while the Portuguese colonies remained essentially coastal. The Spanish ruler and the Genoese bankers finally supported his expedition. He reached Bahamas and went to Sal Salvador, islands of Cuba and Hispania and took shelter at Azores. He felt that he had reached outskirts of Asia. Not spices but he brought back gold and natives who could be enslaved and even converted to Christianity. Columbus voyages also explored West Indies and discovered Trinidad. In his voyage in 1502 he discovered and explored coast of Honduras , Nicaragua and Panama . He established a colony at La Isabela (Dominican Republic ) where he even ruled. Some scholars criticize him as this age of discovery was the beginning of imperialism.

John II tried to lay claims to these discoveries made by Columbus through the treaty of Alcacovas. As a result Spanish rulers turned to Pope Alexander VI, who issued papal bulls which granted all lands discovered or to be discovered in the regions explored by Columbus and drew an imaginary line from North to south west of Azores and Cape Verde, the land and sea beyond this line be of Spaniards to explore and gave them legal claim to the lands. Through the treaty of Tordesailles in 1494, gave Portugal the route to India and the south Atlantic with 48 the imaginary land of Antilla and the land of Brazil. The motive was to find the route to the eastern trade and to break the Portuguese European Voyages of monopoly. Soon professional explorers like Vespucci, Solis and Magellan went Discovery around giving information of discoveries willing to work for any monarch . America Vespucci voyaged between 1497-98 and 1499 exploring Cuba, Guiana coast and in 1501 in Brazil. Ferdinand Magellan a great explorer under Spanish ruler Charles V wanted to bring all southern territories within Spanish demarcation that would benefit Spain. He travelled through and made way to Moluccas the Spice Islands. He was to travel westwards and sailed across the Atlantic into the Pacific in 1519. He travelled through straits of Magellan in south of South America and reached Philippines. Navigator of his caliber, through his voyages, confirmed that the world was round. Despite his death his expedition returned via Cape of Good Hope, making him circumnavigate the earth.

In 1505, Almeida was named the first viceroy of Portuguese Asia. His explorations led to the establishments of forts in Eastern Africa, Cochin and Div. In 1504 Ormuz was captured, a richest place to trade between India and Persia. Albuquerque conquered Goa in 1510, was made Portuguese head quarter. By the close of his governorship, there were major fortresses in Kilwa, Ormuz, Goa, and Cannanore in Portuguese hands. The one major venture by Albuquerque outside the western Indian Ocean was the capture of Malacca, which he took in 1511. Portuguese were able to establish fortified chain of coastal settlements starting from Suffolk in Eastern Africa to Tarande in Malacca and gradually Canton port opened trade till Nagasaki . In 1514 Pope Leo issued a bull Paracelso Devotionis in favour of the Portuguese, gave papal blessing to the discoveries and conquests while sailing towards East. The Portuguese were the first to establish commercial colonial empire . Different goods were transferred from different places like sugar, spices, gold and slaves increasing their profits.

The trade to Spanish America, was confined to the port of Seville and was restricted to the merchants of that city, organized from 1543 in their consulado or merchant guild. The great silver discoveries of the 1540’s produced a revolutionary change in the transatlantic trade. The outward cargoes included manufactured goods which were not products of Andalusia, nor even of Spain. Return cargoes, included sugar, increasing quantities of silver bullion, tobacco .

At the beginning of the sixteenth century Portugal had a monopoly over the spice trade from the east. The two main oceanic trades , from Lisbon to India and from Seville to the West Indies, were important. The transatlantic trade between Spain and Spanish America in the sixteenth century moved more goods, to meet the needs of Spanish settlers , mestizos and Hispanicized Indians. The settlers developed, to pay for these imports, a ranching, planting and mining economy, producing goods for sale in Europe. For their plantations they required slaves, and so created a new trade with West Africa. The silver mines enabled them to pay for imports to sustain trade with the East.

49 The Rise of the Modern West

Map 4.1: The routes pursued by Columbus, Magellan, Balboa, Cabral and Vasco da Gama who travelled to explore diverse regions Source: https://images.app.goo.gl/taDLCgkHvpaxx5su8

4.6 NATURE OF PORTUGUESE AND SPANISH POSSESSIONS (COLONIAL EMPIRES)

The sub unit will examine the dynamics of the early colonial empires; developed mercantilist policies in relation to the colonies as their spheres of influence.

Portuguese Colonial Empire The beginning of modern colonial empires started with conquest of Ceuta and soon Portuguese founded chain of fortified posts and commercial colonies. The world between the Cape of Good Hope and Japan , where the Portuguese had an elaborate network of trade and power between 1500 and 1700, was not a static but was characterized by change. The historians debate on “Eurocentric” explanations to look at the nature of European empire-building in the early modern period . The Portuguese had to face Muslims of East Africa, threats from the Mughal Empire and powers in China and Japan. Was Portuguese monarchy a commercial enterprise, a center of royal mercantilism or was it a military machine or an absolutist monarchy like that of Spain?

The Portuguese colonial government reflected the political character of Portugal as no distinction was made between the colonies and the metropolis . The colonies were dealt with by the Council of state; the Council of the Indies (overseas) was responsible for their government. The metropolis tried to retain full control in Brazil and other Atlantic colonies. Portugal created a model for a seaborne empire, managed a commercial and maritime enterprise in the Indian Ocean mentioned as Estado da India or India House of Lisbon. According to S. Subrahmanyam the nature of Portuguese intervention in the Indian Ocean was represented initially through commercial and then military presence through construction of forts 50 and factories to impose monopoly on the spice trade. The Portuguese Empire had a less uniform system; the titles conferred often varying between Viceroy European Voyages of and Governor or Captain General . They did create an organizational structure in Discovery India with Viceroy as the representative of the king who managed the Indian trade. As king’s representative he entered into commercial treaties with local rulers and supervised their trade in Asia and was assisted by Captains-General. Each fort was under a captain who even looked into the administration of justice. Due to low salaries the empire had rampant corruption and inefficiency in Asia. Portuguese Empire, outside America, consisted of scattered bases and coastal enclaves, very different from the larger colonies of Spain.

The discovery of Brazil initiated the process of colonization in the West. Sugar was introduced in Brazil from Madeira and Sao Thome, having been planted from Sicily . The sugar trade and slave trade were two pillars on which Brazilian colony society was structured. King John III in the sixteenth century divided Brazilian coast between the Amazon and Sao Vicente into twelve captaincies which was granted to proprietary landlords known as donatarios. Grants were taken up by the hidalgos or the gentry. None of these were rich enough to bear the costs as a result four original grants were never settled, another four faced attacks from the natives. The ruler realized the need to establish central authority to save it. Brazil was made a Captaincy General and subsequently changed to a Viceroyalty , while the most important post of responsibility was the Viceroyalty of Goa which supervised Portuguese settlements throughout the Indian Ocean and the East Indies . The colonial Brazilian life was rural in nature and it had single viceroyalty, subdivided into provinces under captain-general and captain. Lesser colonies in Africa and Atlantic had captains. It was the captain general who had direct links with the Portuguese government. The Brazilian settlements were more like villages as compared to Mexico City. The home government controlled the colony through councils and tribunals which had their headquarters at Lisbon. From 1604 to 1614 the Conselho da India or India Council even handled African and Brazilian matters. C.R. Boxer says by seventeenth century history of Brazil was one of consolidation and progress, Royal government had replaced that of donatarios.

First a Casa de Ceuta, then a Casa da Guinea, and then a Casa da Mina was created at Lisbon under the authority of the officials who regulated the whole economic life of Portugal. Later the king created a Casa da India, followed by a state system, administering the factories and official warehouses. Soon a single administrator, the feitor, controlled two distinct Casas within the single establishment and he had under him three treasurers. There were five secretaries — escrivaes, the provedor had to organize the equipment of the fleets which the casa sent out. Portugal colonial society was based on blood, social rank and married status. Those born in Portugal (reinoes) were highest ranked, those in Asia (castios) and in the next strata were in Africa (mulattoes) and the lowest in order were the native Christians. The Portuguese population in the colonies was divided into the officials of the church, nobility and the ordinary married and unmarried men (soldato). The unmarried man had to work in the military and live on the charity of hidalgos (minor nobility). Soldato were part of feudal militia though were appointed for colonial administration.

Spanish Colonial Empire Some scholars see the enclave empire as particularly Portuguese in contrast to the settlement orientation of the Spanish. The Spanish Crown did not finance 51 The Rise of the Modern West overseas commerce but ensured that its benefits passed through Cadiz or Seville and the monarchy got its share. The Spanish colonial empire was urban empire and the regions were rich in mines and metals. The region was settled by officials, lawyers, notaries, landowners (encomenderos, ranchers) mine owners, clergy, merchants and shopkeepers. The process of empire building was initiated by private efforts and later was taken over by the crown unlike Portugal where it was initiated by the Crown.

Spanish conquest of America: The Age of the Conquistadors The discovery of the precious metals in the New World attracted attention of many adventurous men from Spain. From 1520-1550 was the age of adventurous conquerors, or the age of the Conquistadores, who have been linked with the Moorish wars, acquired main centers of American Indian civilization and established European Land Empire. They struck to the cities and captured them all. The Spanish conquests were made at the expense of civilizations which were culturally sophisticated but unprepared militarily for the warfare conducted by the conquistadores. The Conquistadores in the New World:

In 1521, Hermando Cortes had conquered Aztecs and secured their loyalty. He received a new commission as the representation of the Spanish crown in Mexico.

With the help of native Indians, Cortes invaded the Aztec and defeated their ruler and his empire. The old city was destroyed and new one made named as Mexico City with Cortes as its ruler. He was also made a governor of New Spain in1522. Another famous Conquistador Francisco Pizarro was part of founding Panama city. He took advantage of internal problems and conflicts of Inca civilization and finally took over Peru and was made the governor there.

Conquistadores: Cortes in Mexico, Pizarro in Peru, Alvarado in Guatemala , Quesada in New Granada and Montejo in the Yucatan. All of these Conquistadores fought for themselves and not for Spain. As soon as the Spanish government realized the importance of these territories rich in silver mines it established its rule over them. A second rush into the interior began, to the rich silver deposits of Zacatecas and Guanajuato in New Spain (1543–8), and of Potosi in Bolivia (1545). This necessitated further administrative changes to cope with expanding frontiers . The settlers wanted to establish landed estates like those of Castilian nobility and land was suitable for stock raising and agriculture and the indigenous people could work as peasantry. The more developed colonies became mixed societies dominated by creoles (local born whites) and mestizos (half castes) relying on natives. Main aspects of Encomendia: The Spanish institution that became a subject of controversy was encomendia. Initially it was decided that on any new conquest the governor may divide the natives among the conquerors. This gave the Spaniard an authority to employ them whatever way he liked.

52 A powerful lord of the Spanish colonies was called an encomendero and he European Voyages of was given a grant called encomendia comprising of some tribes. Hernando Discovery Cortes, owned 25,000 square miles and 100,000 Indians.

According to J.H. Parry the Conquistadores converted the tributary villages into encomiendas. The villagers rendered to the new masters the service and the tribute which they had paid to their Indian overlords.

The encomiendas provided social and economic basis for colonization.

The encomienda and the stock raising produced the accumulation of capital which made possible the mining of precious metals.

As a result, Indians came under servitude of the individuals and had to bear brunt of their ill treatment. The officials and missionaries from Spain led propaganda against this exploitation. The Indian population dwindled to almost half in Mexico. In the Caribbean island the Amerindian population fell and to fulfil the requirement of the plantations, slaves were brought in from Africa. The Spanish crown tried to exert laws to identify the Indians as free individuals and not to be ill-treated.

The Spanish government reserved one-fifth of the precious metals with monopoly of trade to Seville. Royal Quinto was levy on all bullion brought for smelting and also the tax in form of customs on inter-colonial trade. The colonial trade was a monopoly and the monopolist was the Consulado -the merchant guild of Seville. The consulado, as intermediary between the merchants and the administration, was a permanent help to the casa in sorting out the details of all the practical affairs. To organize trade, the Spanish government created Casa de Contratacion in 1503, under a treasurer, a controller and secretary, and a ‘factor’ whose special duty was to control the shipments of merchandise and it licensed all trade from the colonies. The chief advisory and administrative body in colonial affairs was the Council of Indies created in1524.

The administration of the empires had officials included Governors , Captains and Corregidores. The Spanish colonies were gradually divided into Viceroyalties . Spanish Viceroys were much more under the control of the home government in the sixteenth century because of the constant checks exerted by the Council of the Indies. Spanish colonial government had to monitor the bureaucracy, natives and the newly settled Spanish in the colonies. To weaken the encomienda in 1530s an institution called Corregimentos de Indios was created. All natives were under corrigedores i.e. the royal officials. Their services and tributes were now utilized for the king. n 1542 the Spanish government promulgated a colonial code New Laws, which banned encomendia (settlers privileges). There was two level of authority firstly created in Spain to control the colonies and the other that emerged in the New World. In Central America and West Indies developed a municipal administration with private and royal interests. To enforce the new system commissioners were sent to main centers of colonial government called visitador. He carried the inspection of the whole province of any official. Another official was the Residencia was appointed by the council, maintained the records of all administrative and judicial officials at the end of their tenure. Each Indian then was governed by native officials like a governor, alcaldes (justices of peace ) around two, regidores or town councilors together formed the town council. They were elected annually in a meeting in which local nobility and peasantry 53 The Rise of the Modern West participated, the election being confirmed by the viceroy. The legal and the enrolled householders were called vecinos who elected twelve Regidores and from them alcaldes or municipal magistrates were elected. This pattern made the Spanish colonies distinct from the other colonies. The structure of government in the Indies consisted of viceroyalties, four captaincies and each was like a separate kingdom divided into provinces. At each level power of senior official was balanced through his audencia, a court of law and advisory council. Like viceroys and the captain generals, members of audencia were directly appointed by the Council of Indies to assure their independence .

This was the system to manage huge territorial empire, its wealth and make them accept the authority of the king. Over the Indian government was the Spanish governor of town who had his system of extraction in alliance with the Indian nobility. Each colony control was on the basis of its regional features and economic potential. The native policy was for non-Europeans where Indians were considered the subjects of crown but not of the Spain. They were not slaves, their property was also protected by Spanish laws and their own laws also prevailed and were brought in the fold of European beliefs. Spain regulated colonial economy, applied protective tariffs as the colonies were considered spheres of interest. The Iberian states reserved to themselves a share of the trade; precious metals and commercial monopolies.

Map 4.2: A detailed picture of Spanish and Portuguese possessions Source: Map from Stepher J Lee, Aspects of European History 1494-1789P.98

4.7 TYPES OF COLONIES

The Spanish colonies in Mexico and Peru were ‘mixed’ colonies in which minority of white settlers created society like Spain. In some parts of America and Philippines where settlements were not very attractive Spaniards had colonies of 54 “occupation” with few settlers and the indigenous were loosely supervised, European Voyages of similarly in Portuguese colonies in Angola and Mozambique. In the Portuguese Discovery colonies Brazil was a “plantation” colony, in which a small European minority settled and tried to produce their metropolitan civilization as done by Spain in their mixed colonies. But in Brazil they had perforce to turn to agriculture to establish a widespread plantation economy. The negro slaves were begotten from Africa that produced sugar for European markets and worked in mines. Check Your Progress 2 1) Discuss briefly voyages and discoveries of the Portuguese empire in the fifteenth and sixteenth century......

2) Explain the nature of the Spanish colonial Empire ......

3) What do you understand by the term Encomendia? ......

4.8 THE SLAVE TRADE: PLANTATIONS AND MINING

In America the history of sugar and slavery is even more intimately linked. Sugar was responsible for agricultural slavery and it was the African slaves who replaced the Amerindians. In 1518 the first Asiento or license was granted to import 4,000 African slaves into the Spanish colonies. The Spaniards, being debarred from Africa by the Treaty of Tordesillas (1494), could not conduct their own slaving expeditions and had to entrust the importations to foreign nationals. For all the inhabitants of north-west Africa were assumed to be Moors, whom it was legitimate to reduce to slavery after capture. The process of colonization actually 55 The Rise of the Modern West transformed the nature of slavery where slaves were transported to far off regions to work in plantation and mines for the European states to profit. Portuguese not only supplied to the Brazilian plantations; they were also, unofficially purveyors of slaves to the sugar planters of the Spanish Caribbean, to the mines of New Spain, and Potosi. The negro, already was well known as a part of the social and economic system in Portugal and in the Atlantic islands. The negro slave thereby became an article of commerce, and the essential feature of an organized trade. The influx of slaves had its effects and it drove out free labour and yeomen farmers mainly in sugar plantations. The products from American colonies required unskilled labour mainly to grow sugar, tobacco and cotton and the Reparitimento gangs were uncertain for continuous labour of the sugar plantations; the mestizos (of Spanish and Indian blood) made poor labour and the Negro slaves appeared to be the best option.

Barbara Solow argues that the link between slavery and colonial development is not accidental but arises from the difficulties of settlement where land is either originally abundant or has been made so by the expropriation of the indigenous population. In sugar the Europeans found their profitable crop, in slaves they found the coerced labor force, and in Africa they found a trading network for acquiring the slaves. Some Scholars feel that without African slaves the potential economic value of the Americas could never have been realized. In the establishment of the new international capitalist system, slavery was an indispensable catalyst, a consequence of imperial policy in the expanding capitalist world. I. Wallerstein, conceiving capitalism as a single system, considered slavery as form of exploitation alongside wage labour as part of a capitalist world-system which emerged in the sixteenth century. Robert Fogel and Stanley Engerman applied quantitative techniques to economic history and claimed that the American slave plantation operated like an efficient capitalist enterprise and denied that slave labour was any less productive than wage labour or incompatible with capitalism. Colonialism and slavery, their relationship with the development of capitalism has also been much discussed. B. Solow has sided with the position that both were vital to its development and important to industrialization.

The atrocities by the Europeans in the New World was questioned. It was the Spanish Jurists who discussed the legal status of the native Americans. Las Casas was the person who raised the issue of rights of the Indians and the atrocities. Their literature began to portray Spain in a negative framework. It was because of him that Spanish monarchy abolished slavery of the Amerindians, though its implementation was not fully done. Spanish atrocities were being published in Casas’s work Brief Account of the Destruction of the Indies 1552. Thomas Hobbes in his work Leviathan presented a picture of a natural society prior to the society based on the social contract. The West’s hegemony over the rest of the world fostered an ongoing sense of European superiority over non-Europeans.

4.9 IMPACT OF COLONIZATION

We need to understand the impact of explorations and conquests that transformed the commercial activities, initiated struggle for empire building by the European powers, led to the rise of the modern world and a single market for the whole world. The states created modern colonies; their methods became accepted as Mercantilism and eventually developed into modern capitalism. It had a lot of impact on European economy, as Wallerstein and others give importance to the 56 colonial trade as responsible for the world capitalist economy that started in the European Voyages of fifteenth and the sixteenth century. Another impact was the decline of the Discovery Mediterranean economy and rise of the Atlantic states towards north-Western Europe. There are some scholars who have given lot of relevance to the voyages and discoveries, explorers and the Conquistadores and have portrayed natives as barbarians . Others are who tried to evaluate the didn’t consider the natives as uncivilized rather have blamed the European issues, since the time of crusades in the Mediterranean.

Ecological Imperialism The Europeans made the oceans into highways, arrived in America with guns for conquest and with infectious diseases, exploited indigenous populations and opened regions for immigrant settlement, making the New World into an appendage to European economies. The Europeans arrived there with crops and livestock, pre-adapted to American environments. The Europeans returned home with American crops- maize, potatoes, etc. that did well in European soils and with American silver to stimulate economies and world trade. Western Europe did just that by means of its brutal­ity and guns and by geographical and ecological imperialism. The sugarcane plantations of Brazil and the West Indies be­came moneymaking machines for the imperial institutions and important sources of calories for Europe’s populations.

Alfred Crosby has highlighted the importance of the voyages and how the Europeans affected America biologically as plants and animals were exchanged which led to the globalization of biology but also had effects in form of spread of diseases. The exchange of goods from the New World in return for industrial goods was actually very beneficial to Europe and had an impact on the trade between Europe and the other parts of the world. It was the discovery of America which changed the agricultural map of the world. The crops common to both the Old and New Worlds were cotton, coconuts and some gourds. The dog was the only domestic animal common to both hemispheres. The dispersal of crops and livestock which followed was the most important in human history and had the most far-reaching effects of the discoveries. Some feel that without the American crops, Europe might not have been able to carry such heavy populations. Without the European livestock, and especially horses and mules for transport and cultivation, the American continent could not have been developed. A lot of crops helped feed the Europeans back home that changed their eating habits. Portugal’s revenues banked on the African gold, slaves and the Malaguetta and Asian spices.

The first transferences of European crops and livestock overseas were to the Atlantic islands.

The sheep, cattle and goats, found the vegetation of the slopes and valleys of the Azores environment good to live. Over-reliance on maize in the diet was accompanied by pellagra, a disease due to a vitamin deficiency. The introduction of the crops and the livestock had their effects as well as their successes and taught ecological lessons. Rabbits introduced to the island of Porto Santo in the Madeira group had become so destructive of vegetation and the cattle multiplied rapidly in Hispaniola .

57 The Rise of the Modern West Demographic Effects The scholars have tried to look into the consequences of the demographic factors. Braudel, Wallerstein and others have looked into the impact of population migration that led to spread of various diseases. Some of the diseases prevailed in America like Yellow fever, small pox, measles , plague , chicken pox and malaria. The discoveries, conquest and colonization made people emigrate to the New World and the attraction was of land, farms where the plantation colonies were emerging. The settlement was more attractive towards the New world as compared to Asia and Africa. In America the native population depleted mainly the Amerindian and also there was displacement of African slaves.

Art and Architecture Another impact was evident through the forms of Art. Many were responsible for the rise of new empires be it the missionaries, traders, adventurers, explorers and also responsible in spreading the information about the New World. The books on navigation, knowledge of Geography and biological sciences also spread. The Writers like Shakespeare in his The Tempest and E. Spencer work The Fiarie Queene highlighted about the New World and Thomas Mun in his Utopia talked about an ideal state. The poets and writers were very excited about the ideas of ships, pirates, adventurers and various characters attached to it that became part of literature. They even felt that the natives should not have been displaced. In the art and architecture, the ideas became visible. The black slaves became part also of the painting in context of empire building.

Economic Consequences and Impact on Spain A lot of wealth by the Spanish and the Portuguese was acquired from the mines and commercial activities that led to economic consequences. These mercantilist states adopted policies, where trade was of predominance along with granting privileges, protection, monopolies, accumulation of bullion and silver imports from the New World. Scholars interpret that the price revolution in Europe was an outcome of inflow of silver bullion from the New World. But the rising prices was not merely due to influx of gold and silver or the colonial empire. Seville as mentioned by Wallerstein was the center of the world in the sixteenth century in context of the trans-Atlantic oceanic trade. Chaunu said that the central item of this trade was bullion and the monopoly of Seville, a trade which became so important that all of European life and the life of the entire world, depended on Seville. A question needs to be raised as to why Spain did not move on the path of capitalism or for that matter was not the pioneer in Industrial growth?

Scholars feel that Spanish decline was an outcome of its colonial possessions and the inflow of bullion proved that it was not all about prosperity. Spain was unable to meet the rising demands of the colonies and it was the merchants from the other states who fulfilled the requirements of the Spanish colonies. Spanish colonialism banked mainly on bullion, that entered Europe as Spanish cargo. According to I. Wallerstein the cause seems to be that Spain did not erect the kind of state machinery to profit from the creation of a European world-economy. This indicates that the “core” areas need not be those that are most “central,” either in geographical terms or in trade movements. Spanish sheep farming industry was an impor­tant barrier to the rise of a yeomanry. It is for such reasons the state machinery was not adequately and properly constructed, in P.Chaunu’s phrase. In any case, Spain did not become the premier power of Europe rather 58 became semi peripheral and then peripheral. Spanish empire had a huge bureaucracy that became a burden to the crown and European Voyages of her participation in long wars depleted its revenues and wealth. According to Discovery J.H. Elliot, Charles V imperialism was sustained on the basis of deficit financing and American silver which became the basis to provide money to the Spanish ruler by the financial houses and it helped sustain in the sixteenth century. The American wealth was being consumed fast due to royal policies and also for buying the goods be taken to the New World. The Spanish silver soon began to deplete and the alternative was to raise taxes that affected both the peasantry and the commercial people. In sixteenth century Asia Africa and America were brought into the fold of economic relations and they need to be looked into the context of the world economy. Europe was affected by its new defined relations and by the end of the seventeenth century Portugal had lost half of her imperial possessions and Spain also experienced threats to her coastal possessions and maritime commerce.

Divergence Perspective Pomeranz’s perspective offers important support to the idea that colonialism and slavery played a critical role in the triumph of Industrial capitalism. The unending accumulation of capital and power defines the European developmental path as capitalist. In contrast, the absence of such an unlimited quest characterized the developmental path of East Asia prior to the Great Divergence debate that East Asia was a market economy, but not a capitalist one. Eurocentrism, including attempts to link capitalism to some European essence, must be rejected. Pomeranz joins Blaut and Frank in challenging Eurocentrism. Accordingly, a non- Eurocentric view of the origins of capitalism recognizes the relative backwardness of Europe and the existence of proto-capitalist elements in non-European societies. As much as possible a non-Eurocentric history of capitalism pursues a comparative perspective, examining the development of capitalism in both European and non- European contexts. Finally, a non-Eurocentric history ought to be based on the assumption that whatever its economic benefits may have been, capitalism has operated against the interests of the mass of a common humanity. Check Your Progress 3 1) Briefly describe the role of slavery in Plantations and mines of the New World ......

2) Analyse briefly the impact of the Europe overseas discoveries on Spain...... 59 The Rise of the Modern West 3) Explain the concept Ecological Imperialism......

4.10 LET US SUM UP

The age of European voyages and discovery represented a new period of global interaction. It was the Iberian states who gave impetus to the overseas explorations. European exploration was driven by multiple factors, including economic, political, religious incentives and personal assertiveness and they were able to forge into undiscovered territories identified as New World. The period of European global exploration laid the seed bed of European empire and colonialism, which would continue to develop and intensify over the course of the next several centuries. As European exploration evolved it saw the oppression of native populations and the enslavement of Africans. The slave trade formed a commercial link between the Spanish and Portuguese empires long before the union of the Crowns in 1580. The European voyages and discoveries had opened up the routes to the new lands and paved way for capitalism. What was known was that they lived in a world of empires, and each-from China to Portugal-was striving to build and maintain power with the means at its disposal. The extension of empires around the world from the fifteenth to the seventeenth centuries was not a single-minded conquest by a securely or­ganized Europe but rather a multifaceted transformation. Societies and polities were disrupted and created as rulers extended power, sought intermediaries, and manipulated hierarchies. Along the way, a few people, like Bartolome de las Casas, paused to ask, what have we wrought?

4.11 KEYWORDS Reconnaissance: The process of getting information about enemy forces of positions by sending small groups of soldiers. Reconquista: Military campaigns through which the Christian armies reclaimed Iberian Peninsula from the Moors starting in the eighth century through crusades and was carried forward by Portugal when it captured Ceuta bringing the Christians together under a common cause of acquiring region from the Muslims, culminating with fall of Granada in 1492, by the Spain. Moors: Muslim population of Maghreb , the Iberian peninsula. Donatarios: Proprietary landlords were known as donatarios; Prominent settlers were granted vast estates, some of which actually exceeded Portugal in size, and the owners (donatarios) possessed extensive political, judicial and military powers. They were to settle land at their own cost receiving in return extensive administrative, fiscal and judicial powers over colonists whom they induced to move to their respective captaincies. Creoles: Local born whites from mixed marriages between Europeans and non- 60 Europeans. European Voyages of Discovery Conquistadores: Spanish conqueror of America. Asiento: Revenue licenses or asientos were required for the importation of this ‘merchandise’. Spanish government consented to a series of slave asientos. This was an agreement for farming out the slave trade to a contractor who was to organize the whole business, maintaining his own stations in Spain, Africa and Indies. He was also to take over from the government the task of selling licenses to the sub-contractors and giving the license fees to the Crown. Asiento was a means through which the Spanish government acquired an indirect control over slave trade with its colonies. 4.12 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS EXERCISES Check Your Progress 1 1) See Sub-Section 2,3,4, Section 4.2 and need to mention diverse motives collectively were responsible for the early colonization 2) See Section 4.2 3) Correct answers in one word a) Prince Henry b) Imago Mundi c) 1492 Check Your Progress 2 1) See Section 2,3 and 4 Section 4.5 2) See Section 4.6. In this question mention the nature of control over American colonies briefly talking about council, officials, local government etc. 3) See Section 3 and 4, Section 4.6 Check Your Progress 3 1) You can give details of how and why slaves were brought in from Africa. Also mention role it played in colonialism. Section 4.1 and 4.3 in Section 4.8 2) See Section on impact on Spain in Section 4.9. This helps to understand that Spain had good buying power but not production ability. 3) See Section 4.2, Section 4.9 4.13 SUGGESTED READINGS Braudel, Fernand (1988) Civilization and Capitalism 15th& 18th centuries Vol.s I, II, III. London . Burbank, Jane and Frederisk Coooper (2002) Empires in World History- Power and politics of Difference, Princeton:Princeton University Press Dav's Ralph (1973), The Rise of Atlantic Economies, London: Weiden field and Nicolson.

P.S. Gupta (etc.), Aadhunik Paschim ka uday, Delhi , Delhi University. 61