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[ ok -y uh -ler ]

ocular movements.

an ocular organ.

• performed or perceived by the eye or eyesight.
• Optics. eyepiece .

/ ˈɒkjʊlə /

• of or relating to the eye
• another name for eyepiece

/ ŏk ′ yə-lər /

• Of or relating to the eye or the sense of vision.
• The eyepiece of a microscope, telescope, or other optical instrument.

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Derived forms.

• ˈocularly , adverb

Other Words From

• ocu·lar·ly adverb
• pre·ocu·lar adjective
• sub·ocu·lar adjective
• sub·ocu·lar·ly adverb
• super·ocu·lar adjective
• super·ocu·lar·ly adverb
• trans·ocu·lar adjective
• un·ocu·lar adjective

Word History and Origins

Origin of ocular 1

Example Sentences

That stands for spaceflight-associated neuro-ocular syndrome.

He has obsessive-compulsive disorder and ocular motor sensory deficit (he has trouble reading).

But before he can explain why, a knife-wielding assailant conducts some brutal ocular surgery on the screaming bureaucrat.

But for the delinquency of his son, she had ocular demonstration; and her indignation was hardly to be repressed.

George stared in his face and rubbed his eyes, too, for he thought he must be under an ocular delusion.

Ocular proof I can now offer in the shape of five living eggs of this gigantic bird.

Hence, we must counteract the ocular deception by an adjustment of proportions.

I will answer the question, and show thee, by ocular proof, very soon.

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What Is an Ophthalmologist and What Do They Do?

• What They Do
• Conditions Treated
• Similar Professions
• When You Need One

An ophthalmologist is a physician who specializes in vision, medical, and surgical care of the eyes. They can perform eye exams, dispense medications, prescribe corrective lenses (like eyeglasses or contacts), and perform eye surgery.

Ophthalmologists are the only healthcare providers trained to provide comprehensive diagnosis and treatment of eye disorders. Ophthalmologists are often confused with optometrists (who treat certain eye disorders but do not perform surgery) and opticians (who design, fit, and dispense corrective lenses).

This article describes some of an ophthalmologist's concentrations, as well as the expertise they must have with equipment and treatments. It also points out some of the subspecialties they have to choose from and the training they must undergo before they can work in the field.

What Do Ophthalmologists Do?

Ophthalmology is a clinical and surgical specialty that is focused on the diagnosis and treatment of eye disorders and diseases.

Ophthalmologists are trained to perform a variety of tasks, such as:

• Performing eye exams
• Prescribing eyeglasses and contact lenses
• Prescribing medications to alleviate eye symptoms or treat eye disease
• Performing laser eye procedure
• Performing eye surgery when needed
• Participating in academic research

Ophthalmologists often work with other specialists when vision loss is secondary to another medical condition, such as  diabetes .

What Conditions Do Ophthalmologists Treat?

Ophthalmologists are trained to diagnose and treat a wide range of conditions, including:

• Amblyopia , also known as lazy eye
• Astigmatism , blurring of vision caused by an irregular cornea
• Cataract , clouding of the lens of the eye
• Conjunctivitis , also known as "pink eye"
• Detached retina , the detachment of tissues at the back of the eye
• Eye cancer , most commonly basal cell carcinoma
• Eye occlusion , sometimes called "eye stroke"
• Fuchs dystrophy , clouding of the cornea
• Glaucoma , loss of vision often due to elevated eye pressure
• Hyperopia , also known as farsightedness
• Macular degeneration , an aging-related loss of vision
• Macular dystrophy , an inherited disorder causing central vision loss
• Myopia , also known as nearsightedness
• Ptosis , drooping of one or both eyelids
• Tear duct obstruction
• Traumatic eye injury

What Tests Do Ophthalmologists Perform?

An ophthalmologist typically works in an office outfitted with equipment for eye exams . More complex imaging or exploratory tests may be conducted in a hospital or medical facility.

While some eye surgeries can be performed in a healthcare provider's office, others may require an operating room in a hospital.

Eye Examination

An eye exam consists of a series of tests that assess the state of someone's vision and their ability to focus on and discern objects. The basic test includes:

• Visual acuity exam , using an eye chart or other tools to evaluate how a patient's vision compares to the standard definition of normal vision ( 20/20 vision )
• Refraction testing , using equipment that measures how light bends when it passes through the lens
• Pupil function exam , which evaluates the pupil's shape, size, and reaction to light (often with a swinging-flashlight test used to assess the optic nerve response)
• Ocular motility testing , which measures the strength of eye muscles, typically by asking the patient to follow the healthcare provider's finger with the eyes
• Visual field testing , which examines peripheral vision by asking the patient to count the number of fingers held outside of their central field of vision
• Slit lamp testing , using a table-mounted microscope to view the interior of the eye as a small beam of light is directed through the pupil

Specialized Tests

In addition to a basic eye exam, an ophthalmologist may order specialized tests and imaging studies. Examples include:

• Applanation tonometry , a technique using a tonometer to measure the amount of pressure needed to flatten the cornea
• Corneal topography , in which a topographic map of the cornea is created using a noninvasive computerized imaging device
• Eye ultrasonography , a noninvasive imaging technique that uses high-frequency sound waves to form a live image of the inner eye
• Fluorescein angiography , which uses a fluorescent dye and a specialized camera to evaluate blood circulation in the eye
• Optical coherence tomography , an imaging technique that uses light waves to create two- and three-dimensional images of the internal eye

There are many different drugs used in ophthalmology, including eye drops, eye injections, implanted eye pellets, and oral medications, In addition to medications, an ophthalmologist can prescribe corrective lenses (including bifocal , multifocal, and progressive eyeglasses ) and contacts.

Unlike optometrists, ophthalmologists can perform more sophisticated medical procedures and surgeries. Some of the more common ones include:

• Cataract surgery , in which a cloudy lens is replaced with an artificial one
• Corneal transplant , in which diseased or scarred corneal tissue is replaced with healthy tissue from an organ donor
• Enucleation with eye prosthesis , the removal of a diseased or damaged eye followed by the insertion of an artificial, nonfunctioning eye
• Glaucoma surgery , using lasers or standard surgical tools to increase fluid outflow from the iris or to remove a portion of the iris
• LASIK eye surgery , used to correct errors of refraction, reducing or eliminating the need for corrective lenses
• Strabismus surgery , used to adjust eye muscles to straighten misaligned eyes
• Vitrectomy , a procedure that removes the vitreous humor, a gel-like substance in the eye, to correct vision problems

Training and Certification

An ophthalmologist is a medical doctor (MD) or an osteopathic doctor (DO). The pathway to becoming an ophthalmologist takes between 11 and 12 years.

To enter medical school, a bachelor's degree is first required, followed by completion of pre-medicine studies (including advanced math, science, and biology), and then taking the Medical Competency Aptitude Test (MCAT).

Medical school follows, with two years of classroom studies and two years of clinical rotations in different medical facilities.

Upon graduation, ophthalmologists obtain a medical license in the state in which they intend to practice. This usually involves passing the U.S. Medical Licensing Examination (USMLE) if they are an MD or the Comprehensive Osteopathic Medicine Licensing Examination (COMLEX) if they are a DO. Some states also require that ophthalmologists pass a state exam.

An internship and residency follow medical school. This step in the process can last between three and eight years.

Upon completion of their residency, ophthalmologists can obtain board certification by passing a written and oral exam administered by the American Board of Ophthalmology (ABO). The certification is valid for 10 years, during which time they must take regular continuing medical education (CME) courses to be eligible for recertification.

Subspecialties

Some ophthalmologists will embark on further fellowship training to specialize in specific areas of ophthalmology, including:

• Cataract and refractive surgery , specializing in corrective vision surgery
• Neuro-ophthalmolog y, specializing in the brain and optic nerve
• Ocular pathology , specializing in the diagnosis of eye disease
• Oculoplastics , specializing in the reconstruction of the eyelid, orbit, and tear ducts
• Pediatric ophthalmology , specializing in the treatment of children
• Vitreoretinal diseases , specializing in the retina or vitreous humor

What's the Difference Between an Optometrist and an Ophthalmologist?

Ophthalmologists are often confused with other medical professionals who provide eye care. Some are healthcare providers while others are non-clinical allied health professionals .

Among them:

• Optometrists  are healthcare providers who can diagnose and treat many eye conditions but are not trained in surgery or laser procedures. Optometrists are not considered physicians because they do not attend medical school; instead, they hold a Doctor of Optometry (DO) degree, which requires four years of optometry school after earning a bachelor's degree.
• Orthoptists , sometimes called eye physical therapists, are allied health professionals who evaluate and manage childhood and adult eye alignment problems. Certification from the American Orthoptic Council (AOC) is available for those who complete attending a two-year accredited program after obtaining a bachelor’s degree.
• Opticians are technicians who fit eyeglasses, contact lenses, and other corrective devices by filling a prescription from an optometrist or ophthalmologist. Opticians can practice after one- to two-year training at a technical school or college with an accredited opticianry program. Certification can be obtained from the American Board of Opticianry (ABO).

When Should You See an Ophthalmologist?

You should see an ophthalmologist if you experience any of the following symptoms, particularly if they are persistent, unexplained, or worsening:

• Changes in vision
• New eye floaters
• Dry eyes with itching or burning
• Seeing flashes of light, halos, spots, or ghost-like images
• Seeing lines and edges that appear distorted or wavy
• Eye redness
• Eye tearing or discharge
• Eye bulging
• Diplopia , also known as double vision
• Esotropia , also known as crossed eyes

There are other reasons why you may need to seek urgent or ongoing care from an ophthalmologist, even if vision problems are currently mild.

• Diabetes can lead to vision loss as high blood sugar damages blood vessels at the back of the eye, leading to diabetic retinopathy . People with diabetes need to have an annual eye exam.
• Uncontrolled high blood pressure is a major contributing factor to macular degeneration, one of the leading causes of vision loss in older adults. Any vision changes warrant a visit.
• A family history of glaucoma and cataracts can increase the risk of these diseases, warranting an annual check-up if you experience vision changes.
• Advanced HIV is associated with opportunistic infections, like cytomegalovirus (CMV) retinitis , that cause vision loss. Eye exams are advised for people with HIV who are immunocompromised.
• Herpes zoster ophthalmicus occurs when shingles affect the trigeminal cranial nerve of the face and occasionally the optic nerve. Vision changes with shingles warrant an investigation.
• Herpes simplex keratitis , also known as eye herpes, almost invariably requires treatment by an ophthalmologist.

Ophthalmologists are medical specialists who diagnose and treat eye diseases and other problems involving the eyes. Unlike optometrists, ophthalmologists are physicians with a Doctor of Medicine (MD) or Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine (DO) degree who can perform eye surgery and laser eye procedures like LASIK.

American Academy of Ophthalmology. What is an ophthalmologist?

American Academy of Ophthalmology. Eye exam and vision testing basics.

American Academy of Ophthalmology. List of urgent and emergent ophthalmic procedures.

American Academy of Ophthalmology. Differences in education between optometrists and ophthalmologists.

American Academy of Ophthalmology. Training and certification for ophthalmologists.

Thulasi P. and Djalilian A. Update in current diagnostics and therapeutics of dry eye disease. Ophthalmology. 2017 Nov;124(Suppl 11): S27-S33. doi:10.1016/j.ophtha.2017.07.022.

By Andrea Clement Santiago Andrea Clement Santiago is a medical staffing expert and communications executive. She's a writer with a background in healthcare recruiting.

Evaluation of the Ophthalmologic Patient

• Physical Examination |

The eye can be examined with routine equipment, including a standard ophthalmoscope; thorough examination requires special equipment and evaluation by an ophthalmologist.

History includes location, speed of onset, and duration of current symptoms and history of previous ocular symptoms; the presence and nature of pain, discharge, or redness; and changes in visual acuity. Worrisome symptoms besides vision loss and eye pain include flashing lights, showers of floaters (both of which may be symptoms of retinal detachment ), diplopia, and loss of peripheral vision.

Physical Examination

Visual acuity.

The first step in an ophthalmologic evaluation is to record visual acuity. Many patients do not give a full effort. Providing adequate time and coaxing patients tend to yield more accurate results. Visual acuity is measured with and without the patient's own glasses. If patients do not have their glasses, a pinhole refractor is used. If a commercial pinhole refractor is unavailable, one can be made at the bedside by poking holes through a piece of cardboard using an 18-gauge needle and varying the diameter of each hole slightly. Patients choose the hole that corrects vision the most. If acuity corrects with pinhole refraction, the problem is a refractive error . Pinhole refraction is a rapid, efficient way to diagnose refractive errors, which are the most common cause of blurred vision. However, with pinhole refraction, best correction is usually to only about 20/30, not 20/20.

Visual acuity in each eye is tested as the opposite eye is covered with a solid object (not the patient's fingers, which may separate during testing). Patients look at an eye chart 20 ft (6 m) away. If this test cannot be done, acuity can be measured by using a chart held about 36 cm (14 in) from the eye. Normal and abnormal vision is quantified by Snellen notation. A Snellen notation of 20/40 (6/12) indicates that the smallest letter that can be read by someone with normal vision at 40 ft (12 m) has to be brought to 20 ft (6 m) before it is recognized by the patient. Vision is recorded as the smallest line in which the patient can read half of the letters, even if the patient feels that the letters are blurry or they have to guess. If the patient cannot read the top line of the Snellen chart at 20 ft (6 m), acuity is tested at 10 ft (3 m). If nothing can be read from a chart even at the closest distance, the examiner holds up different numbers of fingers to see whether the patient can accurately count them. If not, the examiner tests whether the patient can perceive hand motion. If not, a light is shined into the eye to see whether light is perceived.

Near vision is checked by asking patients to read a standard near card or newsprint at 14 in (36 cm); patients > 40 years who require corrective lenses (reading glasses) should wear them during near vision testing.

Refractive error can be estimated roughly with a handheld ophthalmoscope by noting the lens necessary for the examiner to focus on the retina; this procedure requires examiners to use their own corrective lenses and is never a substitute for a comprehensive assessment of refraction. More commonly, refractive error is measured with a standard phoropter or an automated refractor (a device that measures changes in light projected and reflected by the patient’s eye). These devices also measure astigmatism (see Overview of Refractive Error ).

Eyelid and conjunctival examination

Eyelid margins and periocular cutaneous tissues are examined under a focal light and magnification (eg, provided by loupe, slit lamp, or ophthalmoscope). In cases of suspected dacryocystitis or canaliculitis, the lacrimal sacs are palpated and an attempt is made to express any contents through the canaliculi and puncta. After eyelid eversion, the palpebral and bulbar conjunctivae and the fornices can be inspected for foreign bodies, signs of inflammation (eg, follicular hypertrophy, exudate, hyperemia, edema), or other abnormalities.

Corneal examination

Pupil examination.

The size and shape of the pupils are noted, and pupillary reaction to light is tested in each eye, one at a time, while the patient looks in the distance. Then the swinging flashlight test is done with a penlight to compare direct and consensual pupillary response. There are 3 steps:

One pupil is maximally constricted by being exposed to light from the penlight for 1 to 3 seconds.

The penlight is rapidly moved to the other eye for 1 to 3 seconds.

The light is moved back to the first eye.

Normally, a pupil constricts similarly when light is shined on it (direct response) and when light is shined on the other eye (consensual response). However, if one eye has less light perception than the other, as caused by dysfunction of the afferent limb (from the optic nerve to the optic chiasm) or extensive retinal disease, then the consensual response in the affected eye is stronger than the direct response. Thus, on step 3 of the swinging light test, when the light is shined back on the affected eye, it paradoxically appears to dilate. This finding indicates a relative afferent pupillary defect (RAPD, or Marcus Gunn pupil).

Extraocular muscles

The examiner guides the patient to look in 8 directions (up, up and right, right, down and right, down, down and left, left, left and up) with a moving finger, penlight, or transillumination light, observing for gaze deviation, limitation of movement, disconjugate gaze, or a combination consistent with cranial nerve palsy , orbital disease, or other abnormalities that restrict movement.

Ophthalmoscopy

Ophthalmoscopy (examination of the posterior segment of the eye) can be done directly by using a handheld ophthalmoscope or with a handheld lens in conjunction with the slit lamp biomicroscope. Indirect ophthalmoscopy can be done by using a head-mounted ophthalmoscope with a handheld lens. With handheld ophthalmoscopy, the examiner dials the ophthalmoscope to zero diopters, then increases or decreases the setting until the fundus comes into focus. The view of the retina is limited with a handheld ophthalmoscope, whereas indirect ophthalmoscopy gives a 3-dimensional view and is better for visualizing the peripheral retina, where retinal detachment most commonly occurs.

The view of the fundus can be improved by dilating the pupils. Before dilation, the anterior chamber depth is estimated because mydriasis can precipitate an attack of acute angle-closure glaucoma if the anterior chamber is shallow. Depth can be estimated with a slit lamp or less accurately with a penlight held at the temporal limbus parallel to the plane of the iris and pointed toward the nose. If the medial iris is in shadow, the chamber is shallow and dilation should be avoided. Other contraindications to dilation include head trauma, suspicion of a ruptured globe, a narrow angle, and angle-closure glaucoma .

Ophthalmoscopy can detect lens or vitreous opacities, assess the optic cup-to-disk ratio, and identify retinal and vascular changes. The optic cup is the central depression, and the optic disk is the entire area of the optic nerve head. The normal ratio of the cup-to-nerve diameters is 0 to 0.4. A ratio of ≥ 0.5 may signify loss of ganglion cells and may be a sign of glaucoma.

Retinal changes include

Hemorrhage, manifested as small or large areas of blood

Drusen (small subretinal yellow-white spots that may signify dry age-related macular degeneration )

Vascular changes include

Arteriovenous nicking, a sign of chronic hypertension in which retinal veins are compressed by arteries where the two cross

Silver wiring, a sign of hypertension in which thin, fibrotic arteriolar walls decrease the thickness of the light reflex

Loss of venous pulsations, a sign of increased intracranial pressure in patients known to have had pulsations

Slit-lamp examination

A slit lamp focuses the height and width of a beam of light for a precise stereoscopic view of the eyelids, conjunctiva, cornea, anterior chamber, iris, lens, and anterior vitreous. With a handheld condensing lens, it can also be used for detailed examination of the retina and macula. It is especially useful for the following:

Identifying corneal foreign bodies, abrasions, and other corneal disorders

Measuring depth of the anterior chamber

Detecting cells (RBCs or WBCs) and flare (evidence of protein) in the anterior chamber

Identifying the location and degree of lens opacities (cataracts)

Identifying diseases such as macular degeneration , diabetic eye disease , epiretinal membranes , macular edema, and retinal tears (when using a condensing lens)

Tonometry and gonioscopy, which quantifies the iridocorneal angle and requires the use of a special lens, may be done.

Visual field testing

Visual fields may be impaired by lesions anywhere in the neural visual pathways from the optic nerves to the occipital lobes (see table Types of Field Defects and see figure Higher visual pathways ). Glaucoma causes loss of peripheral vision. Fields can be assessed grossly by direct confrontation testing or by more precise, more detailed testing.

In direct confrontation, patients maintain a fixed gaze at the examiner’s eye or nose. The examiner brings a small target (eg, a match or a finger) from the patients’ visual periphery into each of the 4 visual quadrants and asks patients to indicate when they first see the object. Slowly wiggling the small target helps patients separate and define it. Another method of direct confrontation visual field testing is to hold a number of fingers in each quadrant and ask patients how many they see. For both methods, each eye is tested separately. Abnormalities in target detection should prompt detailed testing with more precise instruments.

More detailed methods include use of a tangent screen, Goldmann perimeter, or computerized automated perimetry (in which the visual field is mapped out in detail based on patient response to a series of flashing lights in different locations controlled by a standardized computer program). The Amsler grid is used to test central vision. Distortion of the grid (metamorphopsia) or a missing area (central scotoma) may indicate disease of the macula (eg, choroidal neovascularization), as occurs in age-related macular degeneration .

Color vision testing

Twelve to 24 Ishihara color plates, which have colored numbers or symbols hidden in a field of colored dots, are commonly used to test color vision. Color-blind patients or patients with acquired color deficiency (eg, in optic nerve diseases) cannot see some or all of the hidden numbers. Most congenital color blindness is red-green; most acquired (eg, caused by glaucoma or optic nerve disease) is blue-yellow.

glaucoma ; the optic nerve also should be examined.

Angiography

age-related macular degeneration .

Optical coherence tomography

Optical coherence tomography (OCT) provides high-resolution images of posterior eye structures, such as the retina (including retinal pigment epithelium), choroid, posterior vitreous, and optic nerve. Retinal edema can be identified. OCT works in a manner similar to that of ultrasonography but uses light instead of sound; it does not involve contrast use or ionizing radiation and is noninvasive. OCT is useful in imaging retinal disorders that cause macular edema or fibrous proliferation over or underneath the macula, including age-related macular degeneration, diabetic retinopathy , macular holes, and epiretinal membranes . It is also useful for monitoring progression of glaucoma and other optic nerve abnormalities.

Electroretinography

Electrodes are placed on each cornea and on the surrounding skin, and electrical activity in the retina is recorded. This technique evaluates retinal function in patients with retinal degeneration. It does not evaluate vision.

Ultrasonography

B-mode ultrasonography provides 2-dimensional structural information even in the presence of opacities of the cornea and lens that can interfere with direct examination (eg, with ophthalmoscopy). Examples of ophthalmologic applications include assessment of retinal tumors , detachments , and vitreous hemorrhages; location of foreign bodies; detection of posterior scleral edema characteristic of posterior scleritis; and distinction of choroidal melanoma from metastatic carcinoma and subretinal hemorrhage.

A-mode ultrasonography is 1-dimensional ultrasonography used to determine the axial length of the eye, a measurement needed to calculate the power of an intraocular lens for implantation as a part of cataract surgery .

Ultrasonic pachymetry is use of ultrasonography to measure the thickness of the cornea before refractive surgery (eg, laser in situ keratomileusis [LASIK]) and in patients with corneal dystrophies.

These imaging techniques most often are used for evaluation of ocular trauma, particularly if an intraocular foreign body is suspected, and in the evaluation of orbital tumors, optic neuritis, and optic nerve tumors. MRI should not be done when there is suspicion of a metallic intraocular foreign body.

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Meaning of ocular in English

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• accommodative
• age-related macular degeneration
• long-sighted
• long-sightedness
• macula lutea
• ophthalmology
• short-sighted
• wet macular degeneration
• wraparounds
• yellow spot

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Definition of ocular adjective from the Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary

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oc·u·lar

Patient discussion about ocular.

Q. I have been having chronic pain in sinus area and behind my eyes, been to ENT who states it is not infection? I wake up with the pain and go to sleep in severe pain. Its all day and all night. Dr insists that its migraine related and allergy related. I have chronic postnasal drainage. It started 4 months ago when I moved into our new house. The pain makes me extremely fatigue and dizzy at times. I have been referred to the eye doctor, a headache specialist and an allergy specialist. Just recently I have had a CT scan and an MRI, as well as xrays of my sinus. Nothing other than a deviated septum and possible allergies from an ENT has been diagnosed. In the mean time I am waiting for the days to come when I can get into see these specialist. Anyone out there have any of the same symptoms?? Need help here. Soooooo sick of the pain. A. i have chronic sinusitis and can really relate to what you describe. learned to live with the pain...but still, i use various ways to reduce inflammation in my sinuses, i heat the place up before going to sleep, try to avoid eating or drinking cold stuff. another thing i do is i heat water (80c) then add a special oil i bought in a chinese medicine store , about 5 drops, and inhale the fumes. nettle tea can do wonders too.

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• octocrylene
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Definition of 'ocular'

ocular in British English

Ocular in american english, examples of 'ocular' in a sentence ocular, trends of ocular.

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“Ocular.” Merriam-Webster.com Thesaurus , Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/thesaurus/ocular. Accessed 8 Jun. 2024.

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Long COVID or Post-COVID Conditions

Some people who have been infected with the virus that causes COVID-19 can experience long-term effects from their infection, known as Long COVID or Post-COVID Conditions (PCC). Long COVID is broadly defined as signs, symptoms, and conditions that continue or develop after acute COVID-19 infection. This definition  of Long COVID was developed by the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) in collaboration with CDC and other partners.

People call Long COVID by many names, including Post-COVID Conditions, long-haul COVID, post-acute COVID-19, long-term effects of COVID, and chronic COVID. The term post-acute sequelae of SARS CoV-2 infection (PASC) is also used to refer to a subset of Long COVID.

What You Need to Know

• Long COVID is a real illness and can result in chronic conditions that require comprehensive care. There are resources available .
• Long COVID can include a wide range of ongoing health problems; these conditions can last weeks, months, or years.
• Long COVID occurs more often in people who had severe COVID-19 illness, but anyone who has been infected with the virus that causes COVID-19 can experience it.
• People who are not vaccinated against COVID-19 and become infected may have a higher risk of developing Long COVID compared to people who have been vaccinated.
• People can be reinfected with SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes COVID-19, multiple times. Each time a person is infected or reinfected with SARS-CoV-2, they have a risk of developing Long COVID.
• While most people with Long COVID have evidence of infection or COVID-19 illness, in some cases, a person with Long COVID may not have tested positive for the virus or known they were infected.
• CDC and partners are working to understand more about who experiences Long COVID and why, including whether groups disproportionately impacted by COVID-19 are at higher risk.

In July 2021, Long COVID was added as a recognized condition that could result in a disability under the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA). Learn more: Guidance on “Long COVID” as a Disability Under the ADA .

About Long COVID

Long COVID is a wide range of new, returning, or ongoing health problems that people experience after being infected with the virus that causes COVID-19. Most people with COVID-19 get better within a few days to a few weeks after infection, so at least 4 weeks after infection is the start of when Long COVID could first be identified. Anyone who was infected can experience Long COVID. Most people with Long COVID experienced symptoms days after first learning they had COVID-19, but some people who later experienced Long COVID did not know when they got infected.

There is no test that determines if your symptoms or condition is due to COVID-19. Long COVID is not one illness. Your healthcare provider considers a diagnosis of Long COVID based on your health history, including if you had a diagnosis of COVID-19 either by a positive test or by symptoms or exposure, as well as based on a health examination.

Science behind Long COVID

RECOVER: Researching COVID to Enhance Recovery

People with Long COVID may experience many symptoms.

People with Long COVID can have a wide range of symptoms that can last weeks, months, or even years after infection. Sometimes the symptoms can even go away and come back again. For some people, Long COVID can last weeks, months, or years after COVID-19 illness and can sometimes result in disability.

Long COVID may not affect everyone the same way. People with Long COVID may experience health problems from different types and combinations of symptoms that may emerge, persist, resolve, and reemerge over different lengths of time. Though most patients’ symptoms slowly improve with time, speaking with your healthcare provider about the symptoms you are experiencing after having COVID-19 could help determine if you might have Long COVID.

People who experience Long COVID most commonly report:

General symptoms ( Not a Comprehensive List)

• Tiredness or fatigue that interferes with daily life
• Symptoms that get worse after physical or mental effort (also known as “ post-exertional malaise ”)

Respiratory and heart symptoms

• Difficulty breathing or shortness of breath
• Fast-beating or pounding heart (also known as heart palpitations)

Neurological symptoms

• Difficulty thinking or concentrating (sometimes referred to as “brain fog”)
• Sleep problems
• Dizziness when you stand up (lightheadedness)
• Pins-and-needles feelings
• Change in smell or taste
• Depression or anxiety

Digestive symptoms

• Stomach pain

Other symptoms

• Joint or muscle pain
• Changes in menstrual cycles

Symptoms that are hard to explain and manage

Some people with Long COVID have symptoms that are not explained by tests or easy to manage.

People with Long COVID may develop or continue to have symptoms that are hard to explain and manage. Clinical evaluations and results of routine blood tests, chest X-rays, and electrocardiograms may be normal. The symptoms are similar to those reported by people with myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome (ME/CFS) and other poorly understood chronic illnesses that may occur after other infections. People with these unexplained symptoms may be misunderstood by their healthcare providers, which can result in a delay in diagnosis and receiving the appropriate care or treatment.

Review these tips to help prepare for a healthcare provider appointment for Long COVID.

Health conditions

Some people experience new health conditions after COVID-19 illness.

Some people, especially those who had severe COVID-19, experience multiorgan effects or autoimmune conditions with symptoms lasting weeks, months, or even years after COVID-19 illness. Multi-organ effects can involve many body systems, including the heart, lung, kidney, skin, and brain. As a result of these effects, people who have had COVID-19 may be more likely to develop new health conditions such as diabetes, heart conditions, blood clots, or neurological conditions compared with people who have not had COVID-19.

People experiencing any severe illness may develop health problems

People experiencing any severe illness, hospitalization, or treatment may develop problems such as post-intensive care syndrome (PICS).

PICS refers to the health effects that may begin when a person is in an intensive care unit (ICU), and which may persist after a person returns home. These effects can include muscle weakness, problems with thinking and judgment, and symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder  (PTSD), a long-term reaction to a very stressful event. While PICS is not specific to infection with SARS-CoV-2, it may occur and contribute to the person’s experience of Long COVID. For people who experience PICS following a COVID-19 diagnosis, it is difficult to determine whether these health problems are caused by a severe illness, the virus itself, or a combination of both.

People More Likely to Develop Long COVID

Some people may be more at risk for developing Long COVID.

Researchers are working to understand which people or groups of people are more likely to have Long COVID, and why. Studies have shown that some groups of people may be affected more by Long COVID. These are examples and not a comprehensive list of people or groups who might be more at risk than other groups for developing Long COVID:

• People who have experienced more severe COVID-19 illness, especially those who were hospitalized or needed intensive care.
• People who had underlying health conditions prior to COVID-19.
• People who did not get a COVID-19 vaccine.

Health Inequities May Affect Populations at Risk for Long COVID

Some people are at increased risk of getting sick from COVID-19 because of where they live or work, or because they can’t get health care. Health inequities may put some people from racial or ethnic minority groups and some people with disabilities at greater risk for developing Long COVID. Scientists are researching some of those factors that may place these communities at higher risk of getting infected or developing Long COVID.

Preventing Long COVID

The best way to prevent Long COVID is to protect yourself and others from becoming infected. For people who are eligible, CDC recommends staying up to date on COVID-19 vaccination , along with improving ventilation, getting tested for COVID-19 if needed, and seeking treatment for COVID-19 if eligible. Additional preventative measures include avoiding close contact with people who have a confirmed or suspected COVID-19 illness and washing hands  or using alcohol-based hand sanitizer.

Research suggests that people who get a COVID-19 infection after vaccination are less likely to report Long COVID, compared to people who are unvaccinated.

CDC, other federal agencies, and non-federal partners are working to identify further measures to lessen a person’s risk of developing Long COVID. Learn more about protecting yourself and others from COVID-19 .

Living with Long COVID

Living with Long COVID can be hard, especially when there are no immediate answers or solutions.

People experiencing Long COVID can seek care from a healthcare provider to come up with a personal medical management plan that can help improve their symptoms and quality of life. Review these tips  to help prepare for a healthcare provider appointment for Long COVID. In addition, there are many support groups being organized that can help patients and their caregivers.

Although Long COVID appears to be less common in children and adolescents than in adults, long-term effects after COVID-19 do occur in children and adolescents .

Talk to your doctor if you think you or your child has Long COVID. Learn more: Tips for Talking to Your Healthcare Provider about Post-COVID Conditions

Data for Long COVID

Studies are in progress to better understand Long COVID and how many people experience them.

CDC is using multiple approaches to estimate how many people experience Long COVID. Each approach can provide a piece of the puzzle to give us a better picture of who is experiencing Long COVID. For example, some studies look for the presence of Long COVID based on self-reported symptoms, while others collect symptoms and conditions recorded in medical records. Some studies focus only on people who have been hospitalized, while others include people who were not hospitalized. The estimates for how many people experience Long COVID can be quite different depending on who was included in the study, as well as how and when the study collected information.  Estimates of the proportion of people who had COVID-19 that go on to experience Long COVID can vary.

CDC posts data on Long COVID and provides analyses, the most recent of which can be found on the U.S. Census Bureau’s Household Pulse Survey .

CDC and other federal agencies, as well as academic institutions and research organizations, are working to learn more about the short- and long-term health effects associated with COVID-19 , who gets them and why.

Scientists are also learning more about how new variants could potentially affect Long COVID. We are still learning to what extent certain groups are at higher risk, and if different groups of people tend to experience different types of Long COVID. CDC has several studies that will help us better understand Long COVID and how healthcare providers can treat or support patients with these long-term effects. CDC will continue to share information with healthcare providers to help them evaluate and manage these conditions.

CDC is working to:

• Better identify the most frequent symptoms and diagnoses experienced by patients with Long COVID.
• Better understand how many people are affected by Long COVID, and how often people who are infected with COVID-19 develop Long COVID
• Better understand risk factors and protective factors, including which groups might be more at risk, and if different groups experience different symptoms.
• Help understand how Long COVID limit or restrict people’s daily activity.
• Help identify groups that have been more affected by Long COVID, lack access to care and treatment for Long COVID, or experience stigma.
• Better understand the role vaccination plays in preventing Long COVID.
• Collaborate with professional medical groups to develop and offer clinical guidance and other educational materials for healthcare providers, patients, and the public.

Related Pages

• Caring for People with Post-COVID Conditions
• Preparing for Appointments for Post-COVID Conditions
• Researching COVID to Enhance Recovery
• Guidance on “Long COVID” as a Disability Under the ADA

For Healthcare Professionals

• Post-COVID Conditions: Healthcare Providers

Search for and find historical COVID-19 pages and files. Please note the content on these pages and files is no longer being updated and may be out of date.

• Visit archive.cdc.gov for a historical snapshot of the COVID-19 website, capturing the end of the Federal Public Health Emergency on June 28, 2023.
• Visit the dynamic COVID-19 collection  to search the COVID-19 website as far back as July 30, 2021.

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• CDC is not responsible for Section 508 compliance (accessibility) on other federal or private website.